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A New, Practical 



ENGLISH 



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All Grades of Schools, 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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ENGLISH 



GRAMMAR 



Revolutionized and Simplified, 



-BY- 



J". IF. VA.TJ<3-HI3Sr. 







La Fayette, Ind. : 

Spring, En\ersor\. & Co., Printers ai\d Stationers. 

1883. 



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Copyright, 1881, by J. F. Vaughn. All rights reserved. 



PRE FAC E 



This book is respectfully submitted to the teachers 
and students of English grammar, with the hope that 
they will give it an impartial examination, and a fair trial 
in the class-room. The author has endeavored to make it 
not only a practical text book for the learner, but also a 
valuable manual for the learned. He has kept constantly 
in mind that it is the grammarian's business to disclose, 
formulate, and illustrate established principles and usages 
in language, not to invent rules; so that, while the plan 
and execution of the work are essentially new, all the 
facts stated are as old as our present English literature 
from which they have been compiled by patient and 
laborious study. He has purposely avoided criticizing 
any other author's statements; aiming rather to make his 
own in language so simple, concise and perspicuous as to 
need no defense. 

The presentation of his plan made a departure from 
the usual classification and nomenclature unavoidable; 
but no change has been made without thereby securing 
some practical advantage to the pupil. Indeed, this work 
would not have been written had not a long experience as 
a teacher convinced the author that the almost universal 
antipathy to this science could be overcome only by a 
wider departure from the Greek and the Latin grammars, 
and a closer adherence to the structure of the English 
language than we have had exhibited in our text books. 

The following are some of the prominent features of 
this work:— 

1. The work is divided into four parts arranged in 
their natural and progressive order. 



2. The topics are not only arranged in a thoroughly 
progressive order, but each is thoroughly and progressively 
treated. 

3. Each term is clearly denned, and each proposition 
accurately and concisely stated and illustrated before the 
pupil is required to use and apply it. 

4. The test exercises have been prepared with special 
reference to the propositions they are intended to illus- 
trate. 

5. In Part I. Etymology, and in Part II. Syntax, 
respectively, are separately and exhaustively treated; and 
in Part III. they are lucidly combined. 

6. While in the treatment of each of the other parts 
of speech, something new has been given, to the verb 
and the adverb an entirely new, simple, and exhaustive 
treatment has been given. 

7. A most comprehensive, simple, and exhaustive 
system of analysis and diagrams is presented, with exer- 
cises. 

8. Technicalities and confusion producing exceptions 
are eliminated; and grammar is made plain, easy and 
practical. the author. 

Coyington, Indiana, March 24, 1883. 



CONTENTS. 

PART I. 

PAGE. 

Preli minary Definitions 8 

Nouns 11 

Pronouns 22 

Adjectives 35 

Verbs , 42 

Prepositions 67 

Adverbs 70 

Conjunctions 73 

Interjections 75 

PART II. 

Preliminary Definitions 77 

Sentences Classed as to Predicates 77 

Elements, Classes 80 

Sub j ects 80 

Predicates 81 

Attribute Complement 83 

Object Complement 84 

Predicative Complement 85 

Assumed Attribute 86 

Modifiers 88 

Appositives, Ordinary 88 

Attendants 90 

Structure of Elements 91 

Simple, Complex 91 

Compound 92 

Phrases 94 

Sentences, Classes as to Structure 96 

Declarative and Imperative Clauses as Elements 97 

Assumptive Clauses as Elements 103 

Indifferent Clauses as Elements 113 

Structure of -Clause— Elements 120 

Change of Structure 123 

Ellipsis 126 

Abridgment, Substitution 127 



PART III. 

Syntax of Nouns 

Nominative Form 128 

Possessive Form 134 

Syntax of Pronouns 

Gender, Person, Number, 138 

Nominative Form 141 

Possessive Form 142 

Object Form 144 

Syntax of Adjectives 152 

Syntax of Verbs 158 

Syntax of Prepositions 167 

Syntax of Adverbs 171 

Syntax of Conjunctions 175 

Interjections 178 

PART IV. 

Bhetorical Division of Sentences 179 

Capital Letters 180 

Punctuation 182 



English Grammar. 



1- English Grammar is the science which 
treats of the classification and the properties of the 
words of the English language, their usage and 
relation to one another in expressions of thought. 

Bemark — English Grammar as a science is founded 
upon that uniformity of usage observed in the writings of 
the best authors using the English language at the present 
period. 

2. English Grammar will be treated in this 
book under two heads, namely, Etymology and 
Syntax. 

ETYMOLOGY, 

3. Etymology is that department of grammar 
which treats of the classification and the properties 
of words. 

PARTS OF SPEECH, 

4. The words of the English language, with 
reference to their meaning and use in expressions of 
thought, are divided into eight classes or Parts of 
Speech: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, 
Prepositions, Adverbs, Conjunctions and In- 
terjections. 

Bemark — The same word, in different expressions, 
may belong to different classes, or parts of speech. 



10 Properties of Words.— Definitions. 

PROPERTIES OF WORDS. 

5. A Property of a word is whatever distin- 
guishes its use, or application with reference to 
something else; as, gender, person, number and 
form of nouns and pronouns; force, use, tense, and 
orthography of verbs; comparison of adjectives 
and adverbs, etc. 

DEFINITIONS. 

6. A Noun is a name of anything. 

Ex.— Apple, boy, river, James. 

7. A Pronoun is a word whose primary use is 
to represent or stand for some other word or ex- 
pression. 

Ex.— I, we, you, ye, he, she, it, who. 

8. An Adjective is a word which designates 
some quality, distinction, condition, or limitation of 
a thing, or things. 

Ex.— Good, American, debased, this. 

9. A Verb is a word used to predicate some- 
thing, or to intimate such predication of something 
else. 

Ex.— I read. Bead thou. Beading good books. To 
read. 

10. A Preposition is a word which ordinarily 
introduces and forms a part of a phrase related in 
sense to some other expression. 

Ex. — Amid snows; through forests; among many; 
with precision. 



Nouns— Classes. 11 



11. An Adverb is a word which without being 
the complement of a preposition expressed or un- 
derstood, usually serves as a substitute for a preposi- 
tional phrase. 

Ex. — Now — at this time; there— in that place; 
speedily — with speed. 

12. A Conjunction is a word ordinarily used 
to introduce an expression, or both to introduce it 
and join it to a preceding expression. 

Ex. — For me to go is not necessary. That I and you 
should go is not necessary. Mary came, but Jane re- 
mained at home. 

13. An Interjection is a word or symbol 
expressive of some feeling or emotion, but which 
can not enter into relation with any other expres- 
sion. 

NOUNS. 

14. A Noun is a name of any thing. 

Ex.— Book, desk, slate, school, John. 

CLASSES. 

15. Nouns are divided into two principal classes, 
namely, Proper Nouns and Common Nouns. 

PROPER NOUNS. 

16. A Proper Noun is a special name of a 
person, place, or thing. 

Ex. — Henry, Boston, the Hudson. 



12 Nouns.— Classes. 



SUB-CLASSES. 

17. Proper Nouns may be divided into three 
classes, namely, Simple, Compound and Complex. 

18. A Simple proper noun consists of a single 
word. 

Ex. — James, Boston, Ohio. 

19. A Compound proper noun consists of: — 

1. Two or more simple proper nouns. 
Ex.— William Smith, John Wesley Jones. 

2. A title and name. 

Ex.— Mr. Sullivan, Miss Susan Miller, General M. D. 
Manson. 

3. A descriptive term and name. 
Ex. — Red River, Rocky Mountains. 

20. A Complex proper noun consists of: — 

1. A common noun preceded by a limiting 

proper noun. 
Ex. — Fountain county, New York city. 

2. A common noun followed by a limit- 

ing phrase consisting of a proper noun 
preceded by " of." 
Ex.— Duke of Wellington, Queen of Scotts. 

Bemarlc.— The parts of a complex proper noun may be 
considered separately. 

COMMON NOU^S. 

21. A Common Noun is a name that may be 
applied to any one of a class of things. 

Ex.— Boy, girl, horse, rock,|world, sun. 



Nouns.— Remarks. 13 

Eemark.—Ol common nouns there is a class called 
Verbal Nouns which it may be important to define, and 
which is defined as follows: 

A Verbal .Noun is a verb used without any pred- 
icating force, that is, simply to designate what it 
signifies, as an object of thought. 

Ex. — Mary's singing is excellent. Good reading is 
interesting. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Proper nouns are the names of individuals, while 
common nouns are the names of classes. 

2. Proper nouns become common nouns when they 
are used as synonyms of common nouns, or as mere 
w r ords. 

Ex.—\. Patrick Henry was the Cicero of America. 
Here "Cicero" is a strong synonym of "orator." 

2. Parse America. Here "America" is used simply 
as a word. 

3. A name of a collection of persons or things is 
called a Collective noun. 

Ex. — The jury cannot agree. The army marched by. 
Flock, herd, assembly, school. 

4. A common noun and its inseparable limiting 
expression, other than a proper noun, may be called a 
Complex common noun. 

Ex.— Brother-in-law, man-servant, he-goat, man-of- 
war. 



14 Nouns— Capital Letters. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

22. Rule — Every proper noun should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Ex.— Boston, Henry, Jordon. 

1 . Observe that each word of a compound proper 

noun should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex.— Daniel Webster, General U. S. Grant, Mrs. 
Ama Smith, White Eiver. 

2. Observe that words derived from proper 

nouns and having kindred signification to the noun, 

should begin with a capital letter. 

Ex.— American, English, French, European, Jeffer- 
sonian. 

3. Observe that in complex proper nouns the 

common noun also begins with a capital letter, when 

the limiting term does not clearly designate the 

object meant, otherwise not. 

Ex. — Cape of Good Hope, county of Fountain, 
Warren county, city of New York. 

4. Observe that in the titles of books, essays, 

poems, etc., only the principal words begin with 

ca]3ital letters. 

Ex.— Statutes of Indiana, The Buzz of the Wheel, [a 
poem.] 

5. Observe that when proper nouns become 

common nouns they retain their capitals. 

Ex.— He is the Arnold of our cause. He is the Burke 
of congress. 

Bemark.— Usage as to capitals is not absolutely uni- 
form. They are now much less frequently used than 
formerly. 



Nouns— Properties. 15 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Point out the nouns, tell their class and sub-class, 

and justify capitals. 

1. Lord Byron was a poet of great genius. 2. Good 
books are useful. 3. Mr. John Adams was a statesman. 
4. Miss Johnston's singing was admirable. 5. The 
Duke of Wellington was victorious at the great battle of 
Waterloo. 6. England is a populous island. 7. The 
English are industrious. 8. The United States of North 
America is a great country. 9. British Columbia is north 
of Washington Territory, bordering the Pacific ocean. 
10. Indianapolis, the capital of the state of Indiana, 
is situate in Marion county. 11. Mr. Jones recommended 
White's Arithmetic. 12. John's arithmetic is old ; mine 
is new. 13. Horses are useful animals. 14. The conven- 
tion has adjourned. 15. The printing press is stronger 
than a great army. 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

23. The grammatical properties of nouns and 
pronouns are Gender, Person, Number and 
Form. 

GENDER. 

24. Remark.— Gender, as a grammatical property, is 
important chiefly in determining which of certain pro- 
nouns should be used. It will be treated under the head 
Pronoun. 

PERSON. 

25. Person is a term applied to nouns and pro- 
nouns in distinguishing the speaker, the addressed, 
and the spoken of. There are three grammatical 
persons, namely, the First, the Second, and the 
Third Person. 



16 Nouns— Person. 



26. Pronouns which designate the speaker, in- 
cluding those represented by the words we, our, ours, 
us, and their compounds, have the First Person. 

Ex.—l shall go. We must educate. 

27. Nouns and pronouns which designate the 
parties, or things addressed, including those repre- 
sented by the words you, ye, your, or yours, and their 
compounds, have the Second Person. 

Ex.— John, you may shut your book. Jane, you and 
Ann may bring your books to-morrow. 

28. Any expression representing something 

spoken of, may have the Third Person. 

Ex. — William went to see his uncle. To be contented is 
to be happy. That we shall fail, is not to be expected. 

Bemark 1.— Person as a grammatical term, is applied 
to expressions representing objects of thought, not to the 
objects themselves. 

Bemark 2.— Nouns never have the first person. The 
speaker uses a pronoun to represent himself, but he fre- 
quently adds his name to fix the reference of the pronoun, 
and then the noun as the third person. 

Ex.— I, John, saw a vision. I am Howard Gray. 

Bemark 3. — Nouns have the second person by address 
only, or by exclamation closely akin to address. 

Ex.— Friends, I am glad to see you. Why, George ! 
how you startle me. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Determine the Person of the nouns, pronouns and 
expressions denoting objects of thought. 

1 . I saw a bird flying through the air. 2. We lent our 
buggy to our friends. 3. The poor appeal to us for 



Nouns— Number. 17 

sympathy. 4. William, how old are you ? 5. Mary, you 
and your sisters may bring your friends to the party. 
6. John and James have returned. 7. The teacher 
promised to give all the good boys and girls of his 
school an extra holiday. 8. We, (John, James and I,) are 
friends. 9. Music has power to lull the wildest passion. 

10. Music, painting and sculpture are arts of refinement. 

11. This lesson is not a difficult one. 12. We have finished 
our task easily. 

NUMBER. 

29. Number, in grammar, is a term used in 
distinguishing whether an expression represents but 
one, or more than one of the same class of things. 

Ex.— Boy, boys; school, schools; 5, 5's; this, these. 

30. There are two grammatical numbers, namely, 
the Singular, and the Plural Number. 

31. An expression denoting but one of a given 
kind, or aggregate, has the Singular Number. 

Ex. — Book, dozen, army, I. 

32. An expression denoting more than one of a 
given kind, or aggregate, has the Plural Number. 

Ex. — Books, armies, dozens, we. 

FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS. 

33. Singular nouns whose last sound will readily 
unite with s are made plural by adding s. 

Ex.— Book, books; tree, trees; cat, cats. 

34. Singular nouns ending in ch soft, s, sA, a?, 2, 

are made plural by adding es. 

2£c.--Church, churches; gas, gases ; brush, brushes; 
Box, boxes ; phiz, phizes. 



18 Nouns— ^Number. 



35. Some singular nouns ending in f 'or fe are 
made plural by adding s\ others, by dropping these 
letters and adding ves. 

Ex.— Beliefs, strifes ; elves, wolves, knives, wives. 

36. Some singular nouns ending in o, after a 
consonant are made plural by adding s ; others, 
by adding es. 

Ex. — Cantos, solos, pianos; heroes, cargoes. 

37. Singular nouns ending in y after a conso- 
nant are made plural by dropping ?/, and adding ies. 

Ex. — Skies, flies, glories, beauties. 

38. Some singular nouns are made plural by 
adding n, or en. 

Ex. — Ox, oxen; hose, hosen or hose. 

39. Some singular nouns are made plural by 
a change of vowel. 

Ex. — Man, men ; goose, geese ; mouse, mice. 

40. Some singular nouns have two plurals, hav- 
ing different significations. 

Ex. — Brother, brothers (having the same parents), 
brethren (of the same society); Die, dice (for gaming), 
dies (for printing); Fish, fishes (individuals), fish (species); 
Fowl, fowls (individuals), fowl (species); Index, indexes 
(references), indices (signs in mathematics); Pea, peas 
(individuals), pease (species); Penny, pennies (coins), 
pence (value); Sail, sails (canvas), sail (vessels); Shot, 
shots (times fired), shot (number of balls). 

41. Some singular nouns are used for both 
numbers. 

Ex.— Deer, salmon, sheep, trout. 



^ouns— Number. 19 



42. Some nouns having the plural form are used 
for both numbers. 

Ex. — Alms, billiards, bellows, ethics. 

43. In complex nouns that part which is limited 
by the other part is made plural. 

Ex.— Brothers-in-law, courts-martial, man- traps. 

44. Compounds of a title and name sometimes 
have the title, sometimes the name, and sometimes 
both the title and name, pluralized. 

Usage is tending toward pluralizing the name 
only. 

Ex.— The three Miss Clarks, the two Mrs. Joneses. 

NOTE.— A title used with two ov more different names 
is properly pluralized. 

Ex.— Generals Howard and Hancock. The Misses 
Clark, Jones, and Howard. 

45. Letters, figures and signs are made plural 
by adding an apostrophe and s, ('s). 

Ex. — a's, b r s, c's, 4's, 6 ? s, x's. 

TEST EXEKCISE. 

Write the plurals of the following : 

Desk, stove, tree, chief, key, stage, folio, nurse, lens, 
brush, church, box, phiz, monarch, vanity, colloquy, hero, 
cargo, negro, canto, tyro, quarto, solo, memento, loaf, 
leaf, sheaf, self, thief, life, belief, tooth, man, woman, 
child, chick, goose, swan, mouse, rat, 8, 20, p, q, in, on, oh, 
Miss Susan Jones, Annie Clark, and Maud Long; Captain 
Smith and Carter, sister-in-law, man-servant, maid- 
servant, he-goat, she-goat, cup-full, hand-full. 

[Let the teacher extend this exercise.] 



20 Nouns— Form— Declension. 

FORMS OF NOUNS. 

46. Nouns, both singular and plural, have two 
forms, namely, the Nominative, and the Posses- 
sive Form. 

47. The Nominative is the simple or name 
form, whether singular or plural. 

Ex. — Boy, boys ; store, stores ; hat, hats. 

48.. The Possessive is the name form with an 
additional apostrophe (') or an apostrophe and 

Ex.— Boy's, boys'; store's, stores'; hat's, hats'. 

Bemark 1.— When the singular nominative ends with 
two or more sounds of s or z, add the apostrophe only; 
otherwise, add both the apostrophe and s, for the singular 
possessive. 

Ex.— Moses' law, Jesus' name, man's hat. 

Bemark 2. — When the plural nominative ends in s, 
add the apostrophe (') only; otherwise, add both the apos- 
trophe and s, ('s), for the plural possessive. 

Bemark 3.— The apostrophe ('), or the apostrophe and 
the letter s, ('s), is the possessive sign, and primarily sig- 
nifies "belonging to." 

[See Syntax of the Noun.] 

DECLENSION. 

49. The Declension of a nonn or a pronoun is 
the orderly arrangement of its Numbers and Forms. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Singular Number. 
NOMINATIVE.— Boy, (one boy). 
POSSESSIVE.— Boy% (belonging to one boy.) 



Nouns— Parsing. 21 

Plural Nttmber. 

NOMINATIVE— Boys, (more than one boy.) 
POSSESSIVE— Boy r s', (belonging to more than one boy.) 

In like manner decline the following : 

Bird, child, cloud, city, desk, father, grove, house r 
girl, woman, town, doctor, sky, pig, statesman, lawyer, 
teacher, James, Mary, Susan, king, emperor, ox, fox, five T 
corn, grove, river, mountain, valley, book, brother-in-law. 

[The teacher may extend this exercise ad libitum.'] 

PARSING. 

50. Parsing consists in telling what part of 

speech a word is, and its properties if it has any 

properties. 

NOTE. — Prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and 
many words of other parts of speech, have no recognized 
properties. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Parse the Nouns in the following : 
1. Birds fly. 

Birds is a common noun, 3d person, plural number, nomi- 
native form. 

2. The army marched through the town. 

Army is a collective common noun, 3d person, singular 
number, nominative form. 

Town is a common noun, 3d person, singular number, 
nominative form. 

3. John called at Mr. Beed's. 

John is a simple proper noun, 3d person, singular number, 
nominative form. 

Mr. BeeoVs is a compound proper noun, 3d person, singu- 
lar number, possessive form. 



22 Pronouns— Classes. 

4. My brother-in-law is sick. 

Brother-in-law is a complex common noun, 3d person, 
singular number, nominative form. 

5. Iron is a metal. 6. Snow is frozen vapor. 7 
Eishes swim in the river. 8. Pilot- Knob is the greatest 
mass of iron in the world. 9. William Cullen Bryant wrote 
many beautiful poems. 10. President Hayes appointed 
General Keys postmaster-general. 11. Singing is a de- 
lightful exercise. 12. Beauty and minstrelsy can never 
die. 13. Yice is a monster. 14. Children go to school. 

15. The two Misses Brown visited their uncle's family. 

16. The jurymen could not agree. 17. The council were 
not agreed. 18. It was a will-of-the-wisp. 



PRONOUNS. 

51. A Pronoun is a word which ordinarily 
represents, or stands for some other expression. 

Ex.—l, we, thou, you, ye, he, she, it, they, who, which, 
what, that. 

52. The expression for which a pronoun stands 
is called its Antecedent. 

Ex.— John lost his book, and he now regrets it. Here 
" John" is the antecedent of "his" and "he;" and "That 
he lost his book" is the antecedent of "it." 

NOTE.— The antecedent of a pronoun may be either ex- 
pressed or implied, and when expressed, it may either pre- 
cede or follow the pronoun. 

CLASSES. 

53. Pronouns are divided into five classes, namely, 
Personal, Possessive, Conjunctive, Interrog- 
ative, and Correlative Pronouns. 



Pronouns— Personal. 23 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

54. The Personal Pronouns are those which 
not only represent their antecedents, but also show 
their grammatical person and number. 

They are either Simple or Compound. 

55. The Simple Personal Pronouns are : — 

1. The First Person. 
SINGULAB— I, my or mme*> me. 
PLUBAL— We, our, us. 

2. The Second Person. 
SINGULAB— Thou, thy or thine, thee. 
PLUBAL— Ye, your, you, {or common usage,) you, your. 

3. The Third Person. 

l Masculine, he, his, him. 
SINGULAB— < Feminine, she, her. 

{Neuter, it, its. 
PLTJBAL— They, their, them. 

56. The Compound Personal Pronouns are : — 

1. The First Person. 
SINGULAB- Myself, ourself (rare). 
PLUBAL— Ourselves. 

2. The Second Person. 
SINGULAB— Thyself, yourself. 
PLUBAL— Yourselves. 

3. The Third Person. 



( Masculine, himself. 



SINGULAB — 1 Feminine, herself. 

( Neuter, itself. 
PLUBAL— Themselves. 



24 Pronouns— Personal. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. The first person singular personal pronouns rep- 
resent only the person using them. 

Ex.— I, George Jones, saw the comet. 

2. The first person plural personal pronouns are used 
instead of the singular, by monarchs, reviewers, and 
authors, to give dignity to their sayings, or to avoid the 
appearance of egotism. But the tendency now is to use 
the singular. The plural is correctly used, also, when the 
speaker includes others with himself, though they may, 
in fact, be addressed, or spoken of. 

Ex.— John, you and James and I have friends who 
will help us. Here, it is clear that us represents the 
speaker, the addressed, and the party spoken of; yet, be- 
cause these pronouns always include the party using them, 
whether neither or either, or both the other grammatical 
persons are included, they are called first person. 

3. The second person singular represents a single 
party addressed. Their plurals represent two or more 
parties addressed at the same time, or parties spoken of 
in connection with the addressed. 

Ex.— Thou and thy brother may bring your books to- 
morrow. 

4. You and your, in common usage, are used for both 
numbers. 

Ex. — John, you may be excused. Jane and Annie, 
you may recite. 

5. Third person singular personal pronouns repre- 
sent, each, a single party spoken of; and their plurals, 
each, two or more parties spoken of. 

Ex.— John lost his books, and James found them. 



Pronouns— Possessive. Gender. 25 

NOTE.— It is frequently used to represent any grammati- 
cal person and number. 

Ex.— It is I. It is you. It is they. 

NOTE 2.— Mine and thine were formerly used before 
words beginning" with a vowel sound ; and they are still some- 
times so used in poetry, 

Ex.— Mine eyes have seen the glory, etc. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

57. The Possessive Pronouns are those 
which not only represent the possessor, but also 
obviate the repetition of the name of the thing 
possessed. 

They are either Simple or Compound. 

58. The Simple Possessive Pronouns are, mine, 
ours; thine, yours; his, hers; its, and theirs. 

59. The Compound Possessive Pronouns are, 
my own, our own; thy own, your own; his own, 
her own; its own, their own. 

Bemark.— Possessive pronouns become personal pro- 
nouns when they precede and limit the expression denoting 
the thing possessed. 

Ex.— It was your own fault. His hat is in the hall. 

GENDER. 

60. Gender is a term applied to nouns and pro- 
nouns with reference to sex. 

61. Sex is a physical property of things, dis- 
tinguishing them as male or female, or as neither 
male nor female. 



26 Gender— Nouns. 



62. There are two sexes, namely, the Male and 
the Female. 

Ex.— Man, woman, boy, girl. 

63. There are four genders, namely, the Mas- 
culine, the Feminine, the Common, and the 
Neuter. 

61. Nouns and pronouns denoting male beings 
only, have the Masculine Gender. 

Ex.— Men, boys, he, his, him. 

65. Noyns and pronouns denoting female beings 
only, have the Feminine Gender. 

Ex.— Woman, girl, maid, she, her. 

66. Nouns and pronouns denoting either male 
or female beings, or both, without distinguishing 
their sex, have the Common Gender, 

Ex.— Parent, children, friends, cousin. 

67. Nouns and pronouns denoting things that 
are neither male nor female, have the Neuter 

Gender. 

-Ex.— Stones, water, air, lead, it, its. 

NOUNS. 

68 The masculine and feminine genders of 
nouns are usually distinguished : — 

1. By different words. 

Ex.— Man, woman; boy, girl; father,*" mother; uncle, 
aunt; nephew, niece; horse, mare; drake, duck, cock, hen; 
gander, goose; son, daughter; Mr., Mrs.; Charles, Caro- 
line; Augustus, Augusta. 



Gender— Pronouns. 27 

2. By some distinguishing part in derivative 
and compound words. 

Ex.— Abbott, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, 
administratrix; benefactor, benefactress; lion, lioness; 
murderer, murderess; prior, prioress; tiger, tigress; man- 
servant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat; Mr, Jones, Miss 
Jones, Mrs. Jones; pea-cock, pea-hen. 

Bemark.—lt is important to distinguish the gender of 
nouns only when they are to be represented by the third 
person singular personal or possessive pronouns. 

PRONOCNS. 

69. He, his, his own, him, and himself are called 
masculine pronouns, because ordinarily they rep- 
resent males. 

Ex.— An honest man will do unto his neighbors as he 
desires them to do unto him. 

70. She, her, hers, her own, and herself are 

called feminine pronouns, because ordinarily they 

represent females. 

Ex.— She is a lady of society, fully conscious of her 
own attractiveness. 

71. It, its, its own, and itself are called neuter 
pronouns, because they ordinarily represent things 
not regarded as either male or female. 

Ex.— The rose is not conscious of its beauty or its 
fragrance. 

72. Singular nouns of the common gender are 
usually represented by the masculine pronouns, 
which are then said to have the common gender. 

Ex.— Every person has his own faults. 



28 Pronouns— Conjunctive. 

73. But when it is important to distinguish the 
sexes, both the masculine and the feminine pro- 
nouns Should be used. 

Ex.— Every pupil has received his or her certificate of 
admission. 

74. Things without sex are often thought of 
as being male or female, and are so represented by 
the pronoun. 

Ex.— The sun shines in his strength; the moon, in her 
beauty. 

NOTE.— The names of things distinguished for size, power , 
or sublimity, when thought of as exercising volition, are fre- 
quently regarded as masculine ; and, those noted for grace, 
-beauty, gentleness, or productiveness, as feminine. 

75. Animals are frequently represented by the 
masculine, or the feminine pronouns, without ref- 
erence to the real sex. 

Ex. — The fox cunningly evades his pursuers. The 
cat steals upon her prey. 

76. Animals and children are often represented 
by the neuter pronouns, their sex being disregarded. 

Ex.— The hunter found a deer and killed it. The 
child loves its mother. 

NOTE.— For further treatise of these pronouns see Syntax 
of the Pronouns. 

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

77. Conjunctive Pronouns are those which 
not only represent their antecedents, but usually 
introduce an additional clause. 



Pronouns— Conjunctive. 29 

They are either Simple or Compound. 

78. The Simple Conjunctive Pronouns are : — 
who, whose, whom ; which, what, that, and as. 

79. The Compound Conjunctive Pronouns are 
those formed by adding so, ever, or soever to who, 
whose, whom, which or what. 

Ex.— Whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, etc. 

REMARKS. 

1. Who and its derivatives represent persons, and 

personified animals and things. 

.Ex.— The man whom we saw, was a traveler. The 
lion who was called William, lay sleeping. 

2. Which and its derivatives represent infants, ani- 
mals and things. 

Ex.— The child which was lost has been found. The 
tree of which I spoke, stood on the hill. 

3. That is a conjunctive pronoun when it takes the 
place of who, or which, or any of their derivatives. 

Ex. — A man that would have friends:— A book that 
has been read:— A lion that has been tamed. 

4. What, as a conjunctive pronoun, is equivalent to 
two expressions of which one may be the antecedent or 
a pronominal adjective, and the other a conjunctive pro- 
noun. It may be called a double conjunctive pronoun. 

Ex.— I will give you what (the thing which, or that 
which) I have. 

5. As is a conjunctive pronoun when it is used instead 
of who, or which, or any of their derivatives, or that , which 
is frequently done after such, many, and same. 

Ex.— Such as will, may come. There are as many 



30 Pronouns— Interrogative. 

guests as can be entertained. My book is the same as 
yours. 

6. The compound conjunctive pronouns are gener- 
ally equivalent to two expressions of which one may be 
the antecedent or a personal pronoun representing it, and 
the other a simple conjunctive pronoun. Or they may be 
equivalent to what. 

Ex.— Admit whoever comes. Send whichever you 
choose. Whatsoever ye would that others should do unto 
you, do ye unto them. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 

80. Interrogative Pronouns are those which 
not only represent their antecedents, but introduce 
direct questions. 

They are who, whose, whom, w>hich, and what. 

Ex. — Who comes there ? Whose house is that ? 
Which will you take ? What have you ? 

REMARKS. 

1. The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is that 
part of the answer which designates the object enquired 
for. 

Ex.— Who is that man ? Ans. He is Mr. Smith. 

2. When who or its derivatives, which, and what, are 
used to ask about persons, ivho seeks the name, which, a 
particular one of two or more, and what, the occupation, 
character, etc. 

Ex.— Who is that man ? 2. Which man ? 3. What 
is he ? 

Ans. to 2d. He that stands alone. 

Ans. to 1st. Mr. Jones. 

Ans. to 3d. A merchant, or a gentleman, etc. 



Pronouns— Correlative. 31 

3. All interrogative pronouns become conjunctive 
pronouns in indirect questions. 

Ex.— We have heard who the thief was. Do you know 
what has been done ? 

NOTE 1.— A flirect question is one that requires an 
answer to complete the meaning. 

Ex. — Who is that boy ? Ans. He is John Jones. 

NOTE 2— An indirect question is one which by being 
incorporated in another expression, has lost its distinct inter- 
rogative force . 

Ex. — We know what ought to be done. Do you know 
who bought the farm? Here "Do you know," etc., is the 
direct question, and " who bought the farm," is the indirect 
question. 

4. Which and what and their derivatives are pronomi- 
nal adjectives, when they precede other expressions which 
they limit. 

Ex.— Which house— What house, etc. 

CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

81. Correlative Pronouns are those which 
usually require their antecedents consisting of two 
or more terms joined by conjunctions, to be ex- 
pressed as appositive expressions. They are both, 
either, neither, and whether. 

REMARKS, 

1. Both represents not only the one but also the other 
of the two terms, which must be joined by "and," of its 
antecedent. 

Ex. — Both William and James are here. 

2. Either represents separately and indifferently each 



32 Pronouns— Declension. 

of the two, and sometimes more terms, which must be 
joined by "or," of its antecedent. 

Ex.— Either John or James will come. 

3. Either is equivalent to "not either," and requires 
that the terms of its antecedent be joined by "nor." 

Ex.— Neither John nor James will come. 

4. Whether usually represents separately and indif- 
ferently one affirmative and one negative term joined by 
"or," as its antecedent. 

Ex.— Whether he will go or he will not go, will soon be 
decided. 

(See Syntax of Pronouns.) 

DECLENSION. 

82. Some of the Simple Personal pronouns and 
"Who" both as a Conjunctive and Interrogative 
pronoun, have three Forms, namely, the Nomina- 
tive, the Possessive, and the Object. 

They are declined as follows : 

The First Person. 

(Singular Nujhber.) (Plural Number.) 

Nominative, I, we, 

Possessive, my, our, 

Object, me. us. 

The Second Person. 

Nom. thou, ye, 

Poss. thy, your, 

Obj. thee. you. 



Pronouns— Parsing. 33 

(Singular Number.) (Plural Number.) 

Common Usage. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


you, 

your, 

you, 




you, 

your, 
you. 




The Third Person. 




Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


he, she, it, 
his, her, its, 
him, her, it, 




they, 
their, 
them. 


"Who" 


is thus declined: 






n., who. 


Poss., whose. 


Obj. 


, whom 



Eemark 1.— Possessive Pronouus have only the Pos- 
sessive Form. All other pronouns not given above have 
only the Nominative Form. 

Remark 2.— Pronouns are said to agree with their an- 
tecedents in gender, person and number. 

PARSING. 

In parsing a pronoun, tell its class and sub-class, 
antecedent, gender, person, number and form. 

NOTE.— It is essential to name the gender of only the third 
person singular of the personal and the possessive pronouns ; 
and the number of only personal and possessive pronouns. 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Parse all the pronouns in the following: 

1. John lost his ball. 

His is a simple personal pronoun; its antecedent is 
"John;" it has the masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, and possessive form. 



34 Pronouns— Parsing. 

2. We lost our hats, but Jane found hers. 

We is a simple personal pronoun; its antecedent is un- 
known; it has the first person, plural number, and 
nominative form. 

Our is parsed like "we," except it has the possessive form. 

Hers is a simple possessive pronoun; its antecedent is 
Jane; it has the feminine gender, third person, 
singular number, and possessive form. 

3. The man who told me was here. 

Who is a simple conjunctive pronoun; its antecedent is 
"man;" it has the nominative form. 

.Me is a simple personal pronoun, first person, singular 
number, and object form. 

4. Who is the man that you saw ? 

Who is a simple interrogative pronoun; its antecedent is 
unknown; nominative form. 

That is a simple conjunctive pronoun; its antecedent is 
man; nominative form. 

You is a simple personal pronoun; antecedent, gender, 
and number unknown; second person, and nominative 
form. 

5. Both to slander our friends and to worship them 
are wrong. 

Both is a correlative pronoun; its antecedent is "to 
slander our friends [and] to worship them;" third per- 
son, plural number, nominative form. 

6. He and I saw you at his house. 7. Mary gave her 
sister a new book. 8. My uncle gave the book to her. 9. 
I saw T the fox and told him about it. 10. They them- 
selves told us. 11. The horse was not his, nor yours, but 
mine. 12. Take only what is thy own. 13. He is an 
esteemed friend of ours. 14. They who came, were de- 
lighted. 15. Whoever will, may come. 16. The house 



Adjectives— Descriptive. 35 

which you saw, is theirs. 17. They that keep the law con- 
tend with the wicked; but such as forsake it, praise them. 
18. We shall do what is right. 19. I shall not tell who 
spoke to me. 20. Have you heard who the stranger is? 
21. John does many errands, which assists me. 22. Either 
to be rich or to be famous is often a misfortune. 23. 
^Neither wealth nor fame could save Borne. 24. Whether 
William will go or not, is not known. 24. Silver is mined 
in both Peru and Mexico. 26. Both our going to the 
mountains and our meeting so many friends there, gave 
us great pleasure. 27. Whoever takes without right, what 
is not his own, is dishonest. 

ADJECTIVES. 

83. An Adjective is a word which designates 
some quality, distinction, condition, or limitation of 
a thing or things. 

Ex.— Sweet, African, flying, this, that. 

CLASSES. 

84. Adjectives are divided into two principal 
classes, namely, Descriptive and Definitive Adjec- 
tives. 

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

85. A Descriptive Adjective is a word that 
designates some quality, distinction, or condition of 
a thing or tilings. 

Ex.— Sour apples; European customs: blazing fires. 

Bemark 1. — When an adjective is formed from a 
proper noun, it is called a Proper Adjective. 

Ex.— American, German, Washingtonian. 



36 Adjectives— Definitive. 

Bemarlc 2.— When a verb is used so as merely to de- 
scribe, or denote the condition of a thing or things, it is 
called a Verbal Adjective. 

Ex. — A loving mother; the rising sun; a besotted man; 
a to-be-remembered event. 

Remark 3.— Two or more words are frequently joined 
by hyphens, and form a Compound Adjective. 

Ex.— Sweet-smelling, bright-blue, long-lived, dark- 
red. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Point out the descriptive adjectives. 

1. Dark, heavy clouds obscured the sun. 2. Clear, 
sparkling water flows from the shaded spring. 3. The 
soft, white snow covers the brown fields. 4. Lucy gave 
me a large, luscious, ripe peach. 5. There are many 
costly palaces in the European cities. 6. The cowardly 
robber carried concealed weapons. 7. A blazing torch 
lighted our rugged path. 

DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES, 

86. A Definitive Adjective is one that with- 
out describing, designates some limitation of a thing 
or things. 

Ex.— A, an, the, this, that, some, any, all, five. 

SUB-CLASSES. 

87. Definitive Adjectives are divided into Arti- 
cles, Pronominals, and Numerals. 



ARTICLES. 

are A or A 
89. A or An, called the Indefinite Article, 



88. The Articles are A or An andj The 



Adjectives— Pronominal. 37 

designates in a general way, a single thing, or a 
single aggregate. 

Ex. — A man; an hour; a dozen. 

Bemark.—A is used before words beginning with a 
consonant sound; and An before those beginning with a 
vowel sound. 

Ex.— A. horse, a mule, a dog; an ox, an owl, an hour, 
an heir, an enemy. 

90. The, called the Definite Article, designates 
somewhat definitely a conception, whether it be of 
a single thing, a collection, or a species. 

Ex.— The sun, the stars, the rich, the Turk, the Mis- 
sissippi, the Hudson. The lion is stronger than the ox. 

PR0N0MINALS. 

91. A Pronominal Definitive Adjective is 

one which not only designates some limitation of a 
thing, but usually without an article prefixed, may 
also represent the thing. 

They are: This, that, these, those, each, both, either; 
neither, much, many, few, several, all, none, any, one, 
other, another, such, some, both, what, whatever, what- 
soever, which, whichever, and whichsoever. 

The following, also, have been classed with the above: 
Certain, every, else, divers, former, latter, first, last, same, 
you, and yonder. 

Bemark.—Both, either, and neither are adjectives when 
the expression they limit consists of a single term with or 
without modifiers, or when the expression they limit is 
understood. 

Ex.— Both boys were here, or, both were here. Either 
hat looks well, or, either looks well. Neither officer obey- 
ed, or, neither obeyed. 

[ See correlative pronouns.] 



38 Adjectives — N umer al,s— Comparison. 

NUMERALS. 

92. A Numeral Definitive Adjective is one 

that designates definitely the number, order, or fold 
of a thing or things. 

They are divided into three classes, namely, Car- 
dinals, Ordinals, and Multiplicatives . 

93. The Cardinals designate number defi- 
nitely. 

Ex.— One, two, three, one hundred, Etc. 

94. The Ordinals denote the order, rank, or 
position of a thing or things, definitely. 

Ex.— The first, the fortieth, the fiftieth. 

95 . The Mxiltiplicatives denote definitely how 
many fold. They are closely akin to descriptive 
adjectives. 

Ex. — A single tree, a double loop, a two-fold view, a 
triple pleasure, a three-ply carpet, a many-fold paper, &c. 

COMPARISON. 

96. The Comparison of an adjective is the 
variation of its form, by means of which different 
degrees of quality or limitation are designated. 

Ex. —Sweetish, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

97. There are four degrees of comparison, name- 
ly, the Diminutive, the Positive, the Comparative 
and the Superlative. 

98. The Diminutive degree denotes a less 
amount of the quality than the Positive, from 
which it is formed by adding ish. 

Ex.— Greenish, bluish, reddish. 



ADJEgTiVES— Comparison. 39 

99. The Positive degree denotes the simple 
quality or limitation designated by the adjective 
without a comparison. 

Ex.— Green, blue, red, good, bad, few. 

100. The Comparative degree denotes an in- 
crease of the quality or limitation designated by the 
Positive from which it is formed by adding er. 

Ex.— Sweeter, larger, fewer, prettier. 

101 . The Superlative degree denotes the great- 
est increase of the quality or limitation of the Pos- 
itive from which it is formed by adding est. 

Ex.— Sweetest, softest, largest, happiest. 

REMARKS. 

1. The rules of spelling must be observed in adding 
the terminations ish, er, and est. 

2. Comparatively few adjectives admit the diminu- 
tive form; and, generally, only adjectives of one syllable* 
and those of two syllables ending with a vowel or liquid 
sound, admit the comparative and superlative forms. 

3. A Compound or Adverbial comparison of quality 
or limitation may be denoted by prefixing to the Positive 
the words more or less for the Comparative degree, and 
most or least for the Superlative. 



Ex.— Beautiful— more, or less beautiful— most, or least 
beautiful. 

4. Some adjectives which taken in their full sense, 
do not admit the degrees of comparison, are often used in 



40 Adjectives— Parsing. 

less than their full meaning, and given the comparative 
and superlative degrees. 

Ex.— Blind, blinder, blindest, meaning nearly blind, 
more nearly blind, most nearly blind. 

5. Some adjectives have different words for the dif- 
ferent degrees of comparison, as, good, better, best; bad, 
worse, worst. Others have irregular terminations, as, 
fore, former, foremost, or first. Others lack some one of 
the degrees, as, Pos.— , Com., inner, Sup., innermost. 

6. By the use of modifying expressions, the extent of 
quality or limitation may be variously denoted. 

Ex.— Yery sweet, somewhat sweet, unusually sweet, 
Etc. 

PARSING. 

In parsing an adjective, give its class and sub- 
class, and, if comparable, its degree of comparison. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. A ripe peach hung on the swaying twig. 

A is the indefinite article, definitive adjective; incompa- 
rable. 

Bipe is a descriptive adjective, positive degree of com- 
parison; compared: ripe, riper, ripest, when used in 
its limited sense. 

The is the definite article, definitive adjective; incompa- 
rable. 

Swaying is a verbal descriptive adjective; incomparable. 

2. The wealthy are not always happier than the poor. 

Wealthy and Poor are descriptive adjectives, positive 
degree of comparison. Compare them. 



Adjectives— Parsing. 41 

Happier is a descriptive adjective, comparative degree of 
comparison. Compare it. 

[Parse the and the.] 

3. That man is famous. 

That is a pronominal definitive adjective, incomparable. 

Famous is a descriptive adjective, positive degree of com- 
parison; compared: famous, more, or less famous, 
most, or least famous. 

4. Those two men were here yesterday. 

Those is a pronominal definitive adjective, incomparable. 

Two is a cardinal numeral definitive adjective; incompa- 
rable. 

5. The first double assault was made at noon. 

First is an ordinal numeral definitive adjective, incompa- 
rable, though superlative form. 

Double is a multiplicative numeral definitive adjective, 
incomparable. 

6. A disastrous war laid waste this beautiful and 
fertile country. 7. The general rode an iron-gray horse. 

8. He was the handsomest man in the seventh regiment. 

9. The oldest man in the new colony was chosen president. 

10. Lord Byron wrote many beautiful poems. 11. Mary's 
chief pleasure is to read sensational literature. 12. The 
accommodating clerk showed us some fine three-ply car- 
pets. 13. A hidden danger awaited them. 14. A to-be 
regretted remark was made. 15. A heavy bombardment 
was continued for six hours against the doomed fort. 16. 
What right has he to take the best of everything? 



42 Vjerbs— Force. 



VERBS. 

102. A Verb is a word used to predicate some- 
thing, or to intimate such predication of something 
else. 

Ex. — I read. Bead thou. By reading good books we 
become well informed. To read books requires time. I 
am. If I 6e, etc. 

NOTE.— Predicate, is here intended to have the force of 
affirm, declare, say, tell, etc. 

103. A Verb-Complement is a verb used to 
complete a verb group. 

Ex.— Can #o, might read , shall sing. 

104. A Verb-Group consists of two or more 
verbs used as a single expression. 

iftc.-— Could run, should have come, etc. 

FORCE. 

105. With reference to their force in construc- 
tions, verbs are divided into three classes, namely, 
Transitive, Intransitive, and Group- Verbs. 

108. A Transitive Verb is one that requires 
the addition of an object complement to receive or 
terminate its force. 

Ex. — John studies algebra. Let him go. To own land. 

107. An Intransitive Verb is one that does 
not require the addition of an object complement. 
Ex.— Birds fly. Men work. God is. 



Verbs— Uses. 43 



NOTE.— Many verbs may be transitive or intransitive. 
"When it is intended to represent an action merely, though 
the verb might take an object complement, the verb is intran- 
sitive ; as, L read, to write, to study. Here the thing" read, 
or written, or studied, is either very remotely thought of, or 
else not thought of at all, and the verbs are used with their 
intransitive force. So also some verbs generally used intran- 
sitively, become transitive when used in the sense of to cause, 
or when followed by an object complement kindred in signifi- 
cation to the verb. 

Ex.— I flew a kite; i. e., 1 caused a kite to fly. I 
dreamed a dream. He lived a noble life. 

108. A Group- Verb is one that requires the 
addition of a verb-complement to form a verb-group. 
The group verbs are can, may, must, and shall. 

Am, he, do, have, was, and will are used both as 
group-verbs, and as transitive or intransitive verbs. 

USES. 

109. With reference to use, verbs and verb-groups 
are divided into four classes, namely, Declarative, 
Imperative, Assumptive, and Indifferent. 

NOTE.— The same verb may have all of these uses. 
Ex.— Declarative, I read. Imperative, Bead thou. As- 
sumptive, By reading, I learn. Indifferent, To read a book. 

110. The Declarative Verb, or verb-group, 
asserts something directly, conditionally, or inter- 
rogatively of something else. 

Ex.— John writes. If I could write, I would send you 
a letter. Can you read? Who comes there? 

111. The Imperative Verb, or verb-group, 
always implies some preceding assertion, and indi- 
cates — 

1. A command; as, John shut the door. 2. An 
entreaty; as, Come to me, Johnny. 8. An exhortation; 



44 Verbs— Remarks. 

as, Forsake thy evil ways, O, sinner! 4. An invitation; 
as, Come and dine with us. 5. A wish; as, God help the 
poor; Ruin seize thee. 6. Indifference; as, Well, let him 
go. 7. A challenge; as, Strike, if you dare. 8. Permis- 
sion; as, May I go? Yes, go. A supposition; as, Give 
him an inch and he will take an ell. 

NOTE.— The imperative verb never asserts, but because it 
implies a preceding" assertion, the utterance of it sounds 
forcible, independent, and assertive. Illustration— "John, shut 
the door." This is equivalent to, "John, I command you that 
you shall shut the door." 

112. The Assumptive Verb, or verb-group, 
intimates a predication, and without asserting it 
assumes it as a subordinate fact. 

Ex.— A boy, running, stumbles; A letter written for 
me came to-day. Here running and written assume as 
facts what they predicate, but depend upon some other 
expression for their assertive force. 

113. The Indifferent Verb, or verb-group, 
intimates in a general way a predication without 
asserting it. It may be known by its usually hav- 
ing or admitting to before it. 

Ex.— To run. To be running. To have run. We 
wish John to study law. 

REMARKS. 

1. To is generally omitted after bid, dare, feel, have, 
hear, let, make, and see, with active subjects. 

Ex.— I bade him stand. We felt the car move. They 
have him bring the mail. Let us go. See the bird fly. 
They made him go. 

2. When two or more indifferent verbs are used in 
succession, to is generally omitted before each except the 
first. 

Ex.— He plotted to burn Rome, massacre the senate, 
and seize the government. 



Verbs— Tense. 45 



NOTE.— Verb-groups take the use-name of their leading" 
group -verb. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Point out the verbs and verb-groups in the fol- 
lowing, and give their Force and Use: 

1. John studies algebra. 2. We have seen a beautiful 
picture. 3. Mary reads well. 4. Study your lesson dili- 
gently. 5. James, come here. 6. William should have 
gone yesterday. 7. Believing the report we started to 
find the wolf's den. 8. Having returned to our camp, 
we prepared supper. 9. We have been trying to learn 
something. 10. Did you hear John read the letter? 11. 
Go and get your book. 12. Be honest, and you will have % 
friends. 13. They came to plunder, destroy and kill. 14. 
I felt the blood rush to my cheeks. 15. We heard the 
birds singing. 

TENSE. 

114. Tense is that property of the verb, by 
means of which what the verb signifies is repre- 
sented as not finished, or as finished. 

115. Verbs have two tenses, namely, the Iin- 
perfect, and the Perfect. 

116. The Imperfect Tense represents the 
verb's signification as not finished, or ended. 

Ex.— I think. Think thou. To think. Thinking him 
honest, we trust him. I am. If I be. To be. 

117. The Perfect Tense represents the verb's 
signification as finished, or ended. 

Ex.— I thought. A man, thought well of, deceived them. 

Remark.— Declarative and assumptive verbs have both 
tenses; while imperative and indifferent verbs have only 
the imperfect tense. 



46 Verbs— Subject Forms. 

SUBJECT FORMS. 

118. The Subject of a verb is the expression 
of which the verb predicates something. 

Ex.— J think. Think thou. We thought. Men think. 

119. Declarative verbs, under certain circum- 
stances, are varied in form to mark their agreement 
with their subjects. 

Ex.— I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. I walked. 
Thou walkedest. 

120. In the imperfect tense, declarative verbs 
usually have three forms, namely, the General, the 
First Special and the Second Special; and in the 
perfect tense, two subject forms, namely, the General, 
and the First Special Form. 

121. The General Subject Form is simply 
the tense form of the verb. It is called the general 
form, because, under certain conditions, it may be 
used with any subject whatever. 

Ex.— I think. We think. If he think. I thought. If 
thou thought. He thought. 

122. The First Special Subject Form is the 

tense form of the verb w T ith an additional t, st, or 
est. It is used only when thou is the subject or its 
antecedent. 

Ex.— Thou thinkest. Thou thoughtest. 

Remark— The exceptions are be, art, hast, must, shalt, 
wilt, and wert. 

123. The Second Special Subject Form is 

the general form with an additional s, es, or eth. 



Verbs— Orthography. 47 

It is used only when the subject has the third person 
and singular number. 

Ex.— He, or the man thinks, walks, runs, loves; or 
walketh, runneth, loveth. 

Bemark.— The exceptions are be, is, can, may, must, 
ought, shall, and will. 

124. Imperative, assumptive, and indifferent 
verbs have no special subject form. 

Ex.— Eun thou. To run. The boy running. 

125. The imperfect assumptive always ends with 
ing. 

Ex.— Walking, running, thinking, being. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

126. Point out the verbs, and tell their force, 
use, tense, and subject-forms, in the following: 

1. The boys go to school. 2. William studies arith- 
metic. 3. The girls behave well, but their brother acts 
rudely. 4. The man riding the horse, lives in Boston. 
5. We thought that we heard you call us. 6. John, go and 
tell your brother to come here. 7. My friend, thou read- 
est well. 8. If thou study law, thou wilt have a noble 
profession. 9. If thou thought him honest, thou wouldst 
be deceived. 10. If he think it advisable, let him go at 
once. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

127. With reference to orthography, verbs are 
Regular, Irregular, Redundant, or Defective. 

128. A Regular Verb is one whose general 
subject-form of the perfect declarative and the per- 



48 Verbs— Orthography. 

feet assumptive is formed by adding ed to the indif- 
ferent verb. 

Ex.— Ind. (To) work. Per. dec. worked. Per. assum. 
worked. 

129. The Irregular Verb is one whose general 
subject-form of the perfect declarative and the per- 
fect assumptive, is not formed by adding ed to the 
indifferent verb. 

Ex.— To think. Per. D. thought. Per. A. thought. 

130. A Redundant Verb is one that has more 
than one orthography for the perfect declarative or 
the perfect assumptive. 

Ex.— Per. D. cleft, clove, clave. Per. A. cleft, cloven, 
cleaved. 

131. A Defective Verb is one that lacks some 

use or tense. 

Ex.— Can, may, must and shall, which as group-verbs 
are used only in the declarative. 

132. The following list contains the principal 
irregular and redundant verbs of which the indiffer- 
ent, perfect declarative and perfect assumptive are 
given. The indifferent without its sign to, the 
general subject-form of the imperfect declarative 
and the imperative are the same form of the verb. 
Those verbs which are marked R have also the 
regular form. Those which are italicized are either 
obsolete or are becoming so. When the R is dark- 
faced the regular form is preferred; r, in italics, 



Verbs— -Orthography. 



49 



means regular, but seldom so used. These verbs 
should be memorized : 



Indifferent. 



Perf. Declarative. Perf. Assumptive. 



To abide, 
" arise, 
tfc awake, 

" bear (to bring forth 
" bear (to carry), 
41 beat, 
" begin, 
" belay, 
T u bend, 
" bet, 
" bereave, 
44 beseech, 
11 bid, 
" bind, 
11 bite, 
44 bleed, 
44 blend, 
11 bless, 
" blow, 
" break, 
44 breed, 
" bring, 
44 build, 
44 burn, 
44 burst, 
14 buy, 
44 cast, 
tfc catch, 
" chide, 
44 choose, 
44 cleave (to split), 
44 cling, 
41 clothe, 
44 come, 
44 cost, 
44 creep, 
44 crow, 
44 cut, 

44 dare (to venture), 
44 deal, 
44 dig, 
•' do, 
11 draw, 
44 dream, 



abode, 

arose, 

awoke, r. 
),bore {bare), 

bore {bare), 

beat, 

began, 

belaid, R. 

bent, r. 

bet, R. 

bereft, 

besought, 

bid, bade, 

bound, 

bit, 

bled, 

blent, R. 

blest, B,. 

blew, 

broke, brake, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, r. 

burnt, R. 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught, r. 

chid, 

chose, 
clove,cleft,cZare. 

clung, 

clad, R. 

came, 

cost, 

crept, 

crew, R. 

cut, 

durst, R. 

dealt, r. 

dug, r. 

did, 

drew, 

dreamt, R. 



abode. 

arisen. 

awaked. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten, beat. 

begun. 

belaid, R. 

bent, r. 

bet, R. 

bereft, r. 

besought. 

bidden, bid. 

bound. 

bitten, bit. 

bled. 

blent, R. 

blest, B. 

blown. 

broken, broke. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, r. 

burnt, R. 

burst. 

bought. 

cast. 

caught, r. 

chidden, chid. 

chosen. 

cleft, cloven, r. 

clung. 

clad, R. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

crowed. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt, r. 

dug, r. 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt, R. 



50 



Verbs— Orthography. 



Indifferent. 


Perf. Declarative. 


Perf. Assumptive. 


To dress, 


drest, R. 


drest, R. 




4 drink, 


drank, 


drunk, drank. 




4 drive, 


drove, 


driven. 




4 dwell, 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 




4 eat, 


axe, eat, 


eaten, eat. 




4 fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 




4 feed, 


fed, 


fed. 




4 feel, 


felt, 


felt. 




k fight, 


fought, 


fought. 




4 find, 


found, 


found. 




4 flee, 


fled, 


fled. 




4 fling, 


flung, 


flung. 




1 fly, 


flew, 


flown. 




4 forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 




4 forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 




4 forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 




4 freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 




4 freight, 


freighted, 


fraught, R. 




4 get, 


got, 


got, gotten, 
gilt, R. 




4 gild, 


gilt, R. 




4 gird, 


girt, 


girt, R. 




• give, 


gave, 


given. 




1 go, 


went, 


gone. 




4 grave, 


graved, 


graven, R. 




4 grind. 


ground, 


ground. 




4 grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


! l 


4 hang (to take life,R.) hung, 


hung. 




4 have, 


had, 


had. 




4 hear, 


heard, 


heard. 




4 heave, 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 




4 hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 




4 hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 




4 hit, 


hit, 


hit. 




4 hold, 


held, 


held, holden. 




4 hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 




4 keep, 


kept, 


kept. 




4 kneel, 


knelt, r. 


knelt, r. 




4 knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 




4 know, 


knew, 


known. 




4 lade (to load), 


laded, 


laden, R. 




1 lay, 


laid, 


laid. 




4 lead, 


led, 


led. 




4 leap, 


leapt, R. 


leapt, R. 




4 learn, 


learnt, R. 


learnt, R. 




4 leave, 


left, 


left. 




4 lend, 


lent, 


lent. 




4 let, 


let, 


let. 




4 lie [to recline), 


lay, 


lain. 



Verbs— Orthography. 



51 



Indifferent. 


Perf. Declarative. 


Perf. Assumptive. 


To light, 


lit, R. 


lit, R. 




4 lose, 


lost, 


lost. 




4 make, 


made, 


made. 




4 mean, 


meant, 


meant. 




4 meet, 


met, 


met. 




4 mow, 


mowed, 


mown, R. 




* pass, 


past, R. 


past, R. 




1 pay, 


paid, 


paid, 




4 pen (to enclose), 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 




4 prove, 


proved, 


proven, R. 




4 put, 


put, 


put. 




4 quit, 


quit, r. 


quit, R. 




4 rap, 


rapt, R. 


rapt, R. 




4 read, 


read, 


read. 




w rend, 


rent, 


rent. 




4 rid, 


rid, 


rid. 




4 ride, 


rode, rid. 


ridden, rid. 




4 ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 




4 rise, 


rose, 


risen. 




4 rive, 


rived, 


riven. 




4 run, 


ran, run, 


run. 




4 saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 




4 say, 


said, 


said. 




4 see, 


saw, 


seen. 




' seek, 


sought, 


sought. 




4 seethe, 


sod, R. 


sodden, R. 




4 sell, 


sold, 


sold. 




k send, 


sent, 


sent. 




4 set, 


set. 


set. 




w shake, 


shook. 


shaken. 




1 shape, 


shaped, 


shapen, R. 




4 shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, R. 




4 shear, 


sheared, 


shorn, R. 




• shed, 


shed, 


shed. 




4 shine, 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 




4 shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 




4 shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 




4 show, 


showed, 


shown, R. 




4 shred, 


shred, 


shred. 




4 shrink, 


shrunk, shrank, shrunk, shrunken. 




4 shut, 


shut, 


shut. 




1 sing, 


sang, sung, 


sung. 




4 sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 




1 sit, 


sat, 


sat. 




4 slay, 


slew, 


slain. 




4 sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 




4 slide, 


slid, 


slidden, slid. 




4 sling, 


slung, slang, 


slung. 



<52 



Yerbs— Orthography. 



Indifferent, 

To slink, 
" slit, 
" smell, 
" smite, 

" sow (to scatter), 
" speak, 
" speed, 
" spell, 
" spend, 
*" spill, 
" spin, 
" spit, 
" split, 
" spoil, 
" spread, 
19 spring, 
" stand, 
™ stave, 
" stay, 
" steal, 
" stick, 
" sting, 
" string, 
" stride, 
" strike, 
" strive, 

," strow, or strew, 
n swear, 
75 sweat, 
" sweep, 
" swell, 
" swim, 
" swing, 
" take, 
" teach, 
" tear, 
" tell, 
" think, 
" thrive, 
" throw, 
" thrust, 
" tread, 
" wake, 
" wax, 
" wear, 
" weave, 
V wed, 
" weep, 



Per/. Declarative. Perf. Assumptive. 

slunk, slunk, 

slit, r, slit, r. 

smelt, R. smelt, B. 

smote, smitten, smit. 

sowed, sown, R. 

spoke, spake i spoken, 

sped, r. sped, r. 

spelt, R, spelt, R. 

spent, spent, 

spilt, R. spilt, R. 

spun, span, spun, 

spit, spat, spit, 

split, r. spiit, r. 

spoilt, R. spoilt, R. 

spread, spread, 
sprang, sprung, sprung, 

stood, stood, 

stove, R. stove, R. 

staid, R. staid, R. 

stole, stolen, 

stuck, stuck, 

stung, stung, 

strung, strung, 

strode, strid, stridden, strid. 

struck, struck, stricken, 

strove, striven. 
strowed,strewed, str own, strewn, 

swore, sware, sworn, 

sweat, R. sweat, R. 

swept, swept, 

swelled, swollen, R. 

swam, swum, swum, 

swung, swung, 

took, taken, 

taught, taught, 

tore, tare, torn, 

told, told, 

thought, -thought, 

throve, R. thriven, R. 

threw, thrown, 

thrust, thrust, 

trod, trodden, trod. 

woke, "EL. woke,"R. 

waxed, waxen, R. 

wore, worn, 

wove, woven. 

wed, R. wed, R. 

wept, wept. 



Verbs— Conjugation. 



5£ 



wet, R. 
whet, R. 


wet, R. 
whet, R. 


won, 

wound, R. 
wrought, R. 
wrung, 
wrote, 


won. 
wound, 
wrought, R 
wrung, 
written. 



Indifferent. Perf. Declarative. Perf. Assumptive. 

To wet, 
" whet, 
" win, 
" wind, 
" work, 
" wring, 
" write, 

Bemark.— Other irregular verbs are formed by prefix- 
ing to some of those in the list, be-, en-, for-, fore-, misun- 
der-, out-, over-, re-, un-, and with-. 

133. The following list contains most of the 
defective verbs, and the table exhibits what use and 
tense is lacking: 



Indifferent. 


Imperative. 
Imperfect. 


Declarative. 


Assumptive. 


Imperfect. 


Imperfect. 

Am, 

be, 


Perfect. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect. 


To be, 


be, 


Was, 

could, 
might, 


being. 


been. 






Can (able), 

May, 

Must, 

Ought, 

Quoth, 


























ought, 
quoth, 














To beware, 


beware, 
Hark, 


















Shall, 
Will, 


should, 
would (a g 










roup verb), 





CONJUGATION. 

134. The Conjugation of a verb is the orderly 
arrangement of its uses, tenses, and subject-forms. 



54 



Verbs— Conjugation. 



135. Can, may, must, shall and will, as group- 
verbs, are conjugated in the declarative only, as 
follows: 

Imperfect Tense. 
Gen. Sub. Form, 1st Spec. Sub. Form. 2d Spec. Sub. Form. 



I, we, you, he, she, 
it, a man, men, &c. 
can, 
may, 
must, 
shall, 
will, 



could, 
might, 



(Lacking.) 
Notice that in all 
instances when a 
verb lacks a special 
subject-form, also, 
when both doubt 
and futurity are im- 
plied by the 

imperfect; or both 
doubt and present 
time by the perfect, 
the general-subject 
form is used what- 
ever the subject 
may be. 

136. Do and Have, as group-verbs are conju- 
gated as follows : 

Declarative. 
Gen. Sub. Form. 1st Spec. Sub. Form. 2d Spec. Sub. Form. 



should, 
would, 



Thou, 

canst, 

mayst, 

must, 

shalt, 

wilt, 

Perfect Tense. 

couldst, 
mightst, 

shouldst, 
wouldst, 



do, 
have, 

did, 
had, 



Imperfect, 
Perfect, 

Imperfect. 
do. 



Imperfect, 



Imperfect Tense. 
dost, 
hast, 

Perfect Tense. 
didst, 
hadst, 

Assumptive 

having. 

had. 

Imperative. 

have (rare). 

Indifferent. 
to have. 



He, she, it, man, &c. 
does, 
has. 



lacking in all verbs 
except was. 



Notice that do as a 
groub-verb, is used 
only in the declara- 
tive and impera- 
tive, and that only 
declarative verbs 
have special subject 
forms? 



Verb— Groups. 55 



137. Am, he, and was, though three different 
verbs, are usually regarded as only different forms 
of the same verb, and so conjugated. Am always 
takes / as its subject, or as antecedent of its subject. 
Thus we have for am, to which may be added was, 
a special I subject form. These verbs are conju- 
gated as follows: 

Declarative. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Spec. I Sub. Form. Gen. Sub. 1st Spec. 2d Spec. 

am, are, art, is. 

be, 

Perfect Tense. 
was, were, wast, or wert, was. 

Assumptive. 
Imperfect, Being. 
Perfect, Been. 

Imperative. 
Imperfect, Be. 

Indifferent. 
Imperfect, To be. 

[ See list of defective verbs.] 

VERB-GROUPS. 

138. Can, do, may, must, shall, and will, used 
as group-verbs, in both their tenses, take as verb- 
complement, some indifferent verb without its sign 
to. 

Ex.— He can write, or, could write. I do read, or did 
read. They may come, or, might come. It must fall. 
John shall fail, or should fail. James will fight, or would 
fight. 



56 Verb— Complements. 

139. Be, used as a group-verb, takes as its verb- 
complement either tense of the assumptive verb. 

Ex. — To be striking or struck. Be striking or struck. 
Being striking (rare), or struck. Been striking, or struck. 

140. Am, and was, used as group-verbs, take 
as verb complement the indifferent verb with its 
sign to, or either tense of the assumptive verb. 

Ex.— I am to strike. I am striking. I am struck. 
He was to strike. He was striking. They were struck. 

141. Have, used as a group-verb, takes as its 
verb-complement an indifferent verb with its sign 
to, or the perfect assumptive. 

Ex.— We have to strike. We have struck. We had 
to go. We had gone. Having to think. Having thought. 
I have to rise. To have risen. 

142. Ought may be considered a group- verb, 
taking in its imperfect tense as verb-complement 
an indifferent verb with its sign to/ and in its per- 
fect tense an indifferent have-group with its sign to. 

Ex.— We ought to go. We ought to have gone. 

VERB-COMPLEMENTS. 

143. The assumptive, both imperfect and per- 
fect, and the indifferent with or else without its 
sign to, of any verb not defective in these uses, may 
be used as verb-compl6ment of some, or all, of the 
group-verbs. But the declarative and the impera- 
tive are never properly used as verb-complements. 



Complementary Group- Verbs. Conjugations. 57 



COMPLEMENTARY GROUP-VERBS. 

144. The indifferent he and have, and their 
assumptives being, been, having and had, used as 
verb-complements, may take additional verb-com- 
plements, and tlms become complementary-group- 
verbs. 

Ex.— He may be writing. It may have been written. 
Having had to be writing. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

145. There are four conjugations, namely, the 
Germanic, the Progressive, the Passive, and the 
Double. 

146. The Germanic Conjugation is the 

orderly arrangement of the uses, tenses, and subject- 
forms of verbs and verb-groups with reference to 
active and neutral subjects. 

Ex.— I am. Thou art. He is. He was. Thou wast. 
They were, etc. 

Remark.— -The perfect assumptive not used as verb- 
complement, always refers to a passive subject. 

Ex.— It is a book read much by the people. 

Here read takes book as its passive subject. 

147. The Progressive Conjugation consists 
of the Germanic conjugation of Am, Be, and Was 
prefixed to the imperfect assumptive of another 
verb. 

Ex.—l am writing. Thou art writing. He is writing. 
I was writing. Thou wast writing. They were writing, 
etc. 



58 Verbs— Conjugation. 

148. The Passive Conjugation consists of 
the Germanic conjugation of Am, Be, and Was 
prefixed to the perfect assumptive of an other verb. 
This conjugation is used with passive subjects. 

Ex.— I am struck. Thou art struck. *They are struck, 
etc. 

Bemarlc. — All transitive verbs, and many intransitive 
verbs, especially those intransitive which readily unite in 
sense with a following preposition referring to the subject, 
may have the passive conjugation. 

Ex.— A dream was dreamed, etc. He was laughed 
at, etc. 

149. The Double Conjugation consists of an 
assumptive or an indifferent verb, or verb-group 
not used as a group verb, and the Germanic, or the 
Passive conjugation of an other verb. 

Ex.— It kept coming. It was pronounced completed. 
He was seen entering the office. He was ordered to go. 
He was being examined. He was to bring flowers. 

Remark.— The verb, or verb-group, thus used may be 
considered a predicative complement, and as it is more 
convenient so to treat it, this conjugation will not be con- 
sidered further now. 



Am, Be, and Was. 

150. The following is the Germanic conjugation 
of Am, Be, and Was. 

Indifferent. 
To be. 
Have-Group, To have been. 



Verbs— Conjugation. 



59 





Assumptive. 


Imperfect, 


Being. 


Have- Group , 


Having Been. 


Perfect, 


Been. 




Imperative. 




Be, or be thou. 


Do- Group, 


Do be, or do thou be. 




Declarative. 




Imperfect Tense. 


Special I Form 


, I am. If I be. 


Gen. Sub. Form 


, We are. If we be. 


1st Special, 


Thou art. If thou be. 


2d Special, 


He is. If he be. 




Perfect Tense. 


Spec. L, 


I was. 


Gen., 


We were. 


1st Spec, 


Thou wast. If thou wert. 


2d Spec, 


He was. 




Imperfect Have- Group. 


Gen., 


We have been. 


1st Spec, 


Thou hast been. 


2d Spec. 


He has been. 




Perfect Have -Group. 


Gen. , 


We had been. 


1st Spec, 


Thou hadst been. 




Imperfect Can- Group. 


Gen., 


We can be. 


1st Spec, 


Thou canst be. 




Perfect Can- Group. 


Gen., 


We could be. 


1st Spec, 


Thou couldst be. 




Imperfect Can -Have Group. 


Gen., 


We can have been. 


1st Spec, 


Thou canst have been. 




Perfect Can-Have Group. 


Gen., 


We could have been. 


1st Spec, 


Thou couldst have been. 



60 Verbs— Conjugation. 

Bemark.— May, must, shall, and will may be used like 
can; mayest, must, shalt, and wilt, like canst; might, 
should, and would, like could; and mightst, shouldst, and 
wouldst, like couldst. When a special form is lacking, the 
general form takes its place. 

Love, Speak. 



151. The following is the Germanic conjugation 


of the regular 


verb love, and the irregular .verb speak. 




Indifferent. 




To love, to speak. 


Have-Group, 


To have loved, to have spoken. 




Assumptive. 


Imperfect, 


Loving, speaking. 


Have-Group, 


Having loved, having spoken. 


Perfect, 


Loved, spoken. 




Imperative. 




Love, speak. 


Bo- Group, 


Do love, do speak. 




Declarative. 




Imperfect Tense. 


Gen. Sub. Form, 


We love, speak. 


1st Spec, 


Thou lovest, speakest. 


2d Spec, 


He loves, speaks. 




Perfect Tense. 


Gen., 


We loved, spoke. 


1st. Spec, 


Thou lovedest, spokest. 




Imperfect Have -Group. 


Gen., 


We have loved, have spoken. 


1st Spec, 


Thou hast loved, hast spoken. 


2d Spec, 


He has loved, has spoken. 




Perfect Have Group. 


Gen., 


We had loved, had spoken. 


1st Spec, 


Thou hadst loved, hadst spoken. 




Imperfect Can- Group. 


Gen., 


We can love, can speak. 


1st Spec, 


Thou canst love, canst speak. 



Verbs— Conjugation. 61 

Perfect Can- Group. 

Gen., We could love, could speak. 

1st Spec, Thou could love, couldst speak. 

Imperfect Can-Have- Group. 
•Gen., We can have loved, can have spoken. 
1st Spec, Thou canst have loved, canst have spoken. 

Perfect Can-Have- Group. 

Gen., We could have loved, could have spoken. 

1st Spec, Thou couldst have loveti, couldst have spoken. 

Imperfect Do- Group. 
Gen., I do love, do speak. 

1st Spec, Thou dost love, dost speak. 

2d Spec, He does love, does speak. 

Perfect Do -Group. 
Gen., I did love, did speak. 

1st Spec, Thou didst love, didst speak. 

152. The following is the Progressive and the 
Passive conjugation of the verb love. 

Assumptive. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Progressive— Being loving [rare.) Passive— Being loved. 

Have- Group. 

Pro.— Having been loving. Pass.— Having been loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Loved. 

Indifferent. 
Pro.— To be loving. Pass.— To be loved. 

Have-Group. 
Pro.— To have been loving. Pass.— To have been loved. 

Imperative. 
Pro.— Be loving (rare). Pass.— Be loved. 

Do -Group. 
Pro.— Do be loving (rare). Pass.— Do be loved. 



62 Verbs— Conjugation. 

Declarative. 
Progressive. Imperfect Tense. Passive. , 

Spec. I, I am loving. I am loved. 

Gen., We are loving. We are loved. 

1st Spec, Thou art loving. Thou art loved. 

2d Spec, He is loving. He is loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Spec. I, I was loving. I was loved. 

Gen., We were loving. We were loved. 

1st Spec, Thou wast loving. Thou wast loved. 

2d Spec, He was loving. He was loved. 

Imperfect Have-Group. 
Gen., We have been loving. We have been loved. 
1st Spec, Thou hast been loving. Thou hast been loved. 
2d Spec, He has been loving. He has been loved. 

Perfect Have -Group. 
Gen., We had been loving. We had been loved. 
1st Spec. , Thou hadst been loving. Thou hadst been loved. 

Imperfect Can- Group. 
Gen., We can be loving. We can be loved. 

1st Spec, Thou canst be loving. Thou canst be loved. 

Perfect Can- Group. 
Gen., We could be loving. We could be loved. 

1st Spec, Thou couldst be loving. Thou couldst be loved. 
Imperfect Can-Have-Group. 
Progressive. 
Gen., We can have been loving. 

1st Spec, Thou canst have been loving. 

Passive. 
Gen., We can have been loved. 

1st Spec, Thou canst have been loved. 

Perfect Can-Have- Group. 
Progressive. 
Gen., We could have been loving. 

1st Spec , Thou couldst have been loving. 

Passive. 
Gen., We could have been loved. 

1st Spec, Thou couldst have been loved. 



Verbs— Time. 63 



Bemark.— In the declarative, the Do Group is not 
used in the conjugation of Am, Be, and Was, nor in either 
the Progressive, or Passive conjugations. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Point out the verbs and verb-groups, and tell 
their force, use, tense, subject-form, and conjugation, 
in the following: 

1. We ride. 2. You may go. 3. He shall go. 4. I 
did go. 5. They might have come. 6. She has come. 7. 
I had spoken. 8. Go toji: he ant, thou sluggard. 9. Do 
come, some one. 10. To hope is all we can do. 11. To 
have done that, would have offended my friend. 12. If 
thou go, I shall remain. 13. Thou readest well. 14. Thou 
mightst have paid me. 15. I am young, but he is old. 
16. They are good. 17. Thou art my best friend. 18. 
Thou hast been the bearer of good news. 19. He can be 
here to-morrow. 20. He might have been there. 21. I 
am writing a letter. 22. He is reading the paper. 23. He 
might have been building a house. 24. William ought to 
have been preparing his lesson. 25. John was elected 
chairman. 26. The prisoner has been tried and acquitted. 
27. Thou art chosen to preside at the meeting. 28. He 
could have been elected, if he would have consented to be 
a candidate. 29. John has often been laughed at for his 
blunders. 30. I am oppressed by that man. 31. If I be 
here to-morrow, I shall try to see you. 32. If he be not 
opposed to the business, I am sure he will not assist you 
in it. 

NOTE.— The parts of a verb-group are often separated by 
other words. 

TIME. 

153. The natural grand divisions of time are the 
Present, the Past and the Future. 

154. The present is time now passing. But 



64 Verbs— Time. 



time really past, or yet to come may be thought of 
as forming a part of a period of time now passing.* 

Ex.— This moment, this hour, to-day, this week, this 
month, this year, this decade, this century, etc., is full of 
changes. 

155. The Past is time elapsed. Though in 
fact it includes every moment gone by, it is thought 
of as distinct from the present period. 

Ex. — The last moment, or hour, or day, or week, or 
month, or year, or decade, or century, etc., gave promise 
of this one. 

156. The Future is time to come. Though it 
comprehends all time to come, it, also, is thought of 
as distinct from the present period. 

Ex.— This moment, or hour, or day, or week, or 
month, or year, or decade, or century, etc.. gives some 
indication of what the next will be. 

157. Though particular periods of time are defi- 
nitely designated by nouns, adverbs, and other 
expressions, verbs and verb-groups inferentially 
designate the relation of periods of time. 

Ex.—l. He is sick. Here is indicates present time. 
2. He had been sick. Here had been indicates a period of 
time past before some other period also past. 3. He will 
go. Here will go implies future time. 4. He will have 
gone. Here will have gone indicates a future period before 
an other future period referred to. 

Bemark.— The reference made by verbs and verb- 
groups to time, is sometimes inherent in the verb, some- 
times indicated by. the tense, sometimes by the use, and 
sometimes by the whole expression of which the verb is a 
part. 

Ex.— I shall go. He will go. He is here. They were 



Verbs— Parsing. 6-5 

here. If I were rich no one here should be penniless now. 
Go. Do hush. We have books to read. We had books 

to read. 

[See Syntax of the Verb.] 

PARSING. 

15?. In parsing verbs and verb-groups, tell the 
force, use, tense, subject form, and conjugation, and 
if a verb-group, what group it is. 

Bemark — The force of a verb-group is determined as 
if it were a single verb; and its subject-form is determined 
by its first group-verb. 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Parse all the verbs and verb-groups in the follow- 
ing: 

1. John writes rapidly. 

Writes is a verb, intransitive, declarative, present tense, 
2nd special sub. form, germanic conjugation. 

2. He might have been respected, had he conducted him- 
self properly. 

Might have been respected is a verb-group, intransitive, 
declarative, perfect tense of the Can-Have group, gen- 
eral subject form, passive conjugation. 

Had conducted is a verb-group, transitive, declarative, per- 
fect tense of the Have-Group, geileral subject form, 
germanic conjugation. 

3. Hast thou been writing a letter? 

Hast been writing is a verb-group, transitive, declarative, 
imperfect tense of the Have-group, 1st special subject 
form, progressive conjugation. 

4. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

To live is a verb, intrans., indifferent, imperfect, general 
subject form, germanic conjugation. 



Verbs— Parsing. 



Leave is a verb, trans., declarative, imperfect, gen. sub. 
form, germ. conj. 

To die (like to live). 

5. Go, weep for the slain. 

GrO, and Weep, are verbs, intrans., imperative, imperfect 
tense, gen. sub. form, germanic conjugation. 

6. Believing his story, we returned. 

Believing is a verb, trans., assumptive, imperfect tense, 
gen. sub. form, germanic conjugation. 

7. Having examined it, I endorse it. 

Having examined is a verb-group, trans, assumptive, im- 
perfect tense of the Have-group, gen. sub. form, ger- 
manic conjugation. 

8. He is a man, honored for his integrity. 

Honored is a verb, intrans. assumptive, perfect tense, gen. 
sub. form, germanic conjugation. (See remark under 
Germanic Conjugation). 

9. They went home. 10. I might write a letter. 11. 
James has seen John. 12. I am writing a letter. 13. If 
it rain, it will be unpleasant. 14. If thou resist we must 
bind thee. 15. He resists the officers. 16. If he hate us 
shall we flee? 17. Were he here, we might assist him. 
18. Do hurry with your work and come. 19. See that 
boy running. 20. Bid Jane to come here. 21. We were 
returning from church when we heard the child call for 
help. 22. She died, loved by all who knew her. 23. We 
have received a letter written and sent by our friend 
living in Boston. 24. How long have you been waiting 
for us? 25. We ought to have come sooner. 26. Where 
were you going when I met you yesterday? 27. They 
might have caught some fine fish, had they had their 
hooks and lines with them. 28. He has been laughed at 
enough to make any one else ashamed. 29. When we 
shall have visited Japan, we Shall return. 30. It is said 
that John has returned. 



PREPOSITIONS. 67 



PREPOSITIONS. 

159. A Preposition is a word which ordinarily 
introduces and forms a part of a phrase related in 
sense to some other expression. 

Ex.— I went to Boston. 

160. The Complement of a preposition is 
that part of the phrase which combines with the 
preposition and determines its force. 

Ex.— We rode on the car. Here "on the car" is a prep- 
ositional phrase of which "on" is the preposition, and 
u car" its complement. 

Remark 1.— The complement of a preposition may be 
a word, or a phrase, or a sentence. 

Ex.— Flowers bloom in spring. We knew of John's 

HAVING WRITTEN THE LETTER. We are SUie of THAT 
WE SHALL, DIE. 

Remark 2.— -Two prepositions sometimes combine in 
sense and form a complex preposition. 

Ex.— They proceeded according to law. Stand out of 
the way. 

Remark 3.— The preposition is frequently omitted 
when its force is clearly implied. 

Ex.— Go home. Go to your home. He walked five 
miles. Give ( ) me your hand, my friend. 

Remark 4.— The preposition sometimes follows its 
complement, other words intervening. 

jEx.-He is the noblest man that I have ever been 
acquainted ivith. 

[See Syntax of Prepositions]. 



68 Prepositions— List— Parsing. 



LIST. 

161. The following are the principal preposi- 
tions: 

About, aboard, above, across, after, against, along, 
amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart; 
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, 
betwixt, beyond, but, by; concerning; down, during; 
except, excepting; for, from; in, into; notwithstanding; 
of, off, on, out, out of, over, overthwart; past; round; 
since; though, till, to, touching, toward, towards; under, 
underneath, until, unto, up, upon; with, within, without. 

The following, less frequently used, may be 
added : 

Abaft, aloft, alongside, afore, adown, aloof, aneath, 
aslant, atween, atwixt, despite, inside, outside, per, sans, 
versus, via. 

Remark.— Several words having the form of imperfect 
assumptive verbs are prepositions when, without pred- 
icating, they require complements. 

Ex.— He spoke concerning the law, notwithstanding 
lawyers were present. 

Remark 2.— Except and save, excepting and saving 
are generally considered prepositions; but they may, in 
most cases, be called verbs. 

Ex.— All except William were there. Here, by, con- 
ceiving a subject implied, " except" may be called an im- 
perative verb, otherwise, a preposition. 

PARSING. 

162. In parsing a prepositional phrase, first 
point out the preposition, and then its comple- 
ment. 



Prepositions— Parsing. 69 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Point out the prepositional phrases, and parse as 
directed. 

1. The flowers of spring are beautiful. 

Of spring is a prepositional phrase of which "of" is the 
preposition and k 'spring" is its complement. 

2. John went with me into the garden. 

With me is a prepositional phrase of which "with" is the 
preposition and "me" is its complement. 

Into the garden is a prepositional phrase of which "into" 
is the preposition and "garden" is its complement. 

3. We received much pleasure from John's visiting us. 

From John's visiting us is a prepositional phrase of which 
"from" is the preposition and "John's visiting us," 
is its complement. 

4. He came from beyond the sea. 

From beyond the sea is a prepositional phrase of which 
"from" is the preposition, whose complement is 
"beyond the sea," a prepositional phrase of which 
"beyond" is the preposition and "sea" is its comple- 
ment. 

5. They came according to their promise. 

According to their promise is a prepositional phrase of 
which "according to" is the complex preposition, and 
promise is its complement. Or, 

According is an assumptive verb assuming "they" as its 
subject; and "to their promise" is the prepositional 
phrase. 

6. John went across the field and through the forest to 
the friend of his fathers'. 7. For the purpose of view- 
ing the treasures of the church, we followed a priest into 
a large room filled with wooden presses. 8. From the 
inside of each of these hollow spires from sixteen to 



70 Adverbs— Classes. 

thirty statues looked out upon the world below them. 
9. On the steeple, inside of the spires, over the windows, 
in nooks and corners about the building, from summit to 
base, there are marble statues. 10. The treasures here, 
by simple weight, without counting workmanship, were 
valued at ten millions of dollars. 

ADVERBS. 

163. An Adverb is a word which, without 
being the complement of a preposition expressed or 
implied, usually serves as a substitute for a prepo- 
sitional phrase. 

Ex.— John is here, i. e. at this place. James trades hon- 
estly, i. e. with honesty. He speaks distinctly, i. e. with 
distinction. 

CLASSES. 

164. Adverbs are divided into four classes, 
namely: Pure Adverbs, Conjunctive Adverbs, 
Pronominal Adverbs, and Conjunctive Pronomi- 
nal Adverbs. 

165. A Pure Adverb is one that can serve as 
a substitute for no more than a single prepositional 
phrase at one time. 

Ex-— John is coming now, i. e. at this time. He did 
his part effectually, i. e. with effect. 

166. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that serves 
as a substitute for two prepositional phrases at the 
same time. 

Ex.— I shall go when (at the time at which) you return. 
He lives where (at the place at which) you saw him. 

Bemark.— The words most frequently used as con- 
junctive adverbs are as, when, where, and while. 



Adverbs —Comparison. 71 

167. A Pronominal Adverb is one that serves 
as a substitute for a sentence. 

Ex.— Have you seen John? Yes, i. e. I have seen 
John. 

Bemark.— The words most frequently used as pro- 
nominal adverbs are ay, aye, amen, nay, no, yea, yes. 

168. A Conjunctive Pronominal Adverb is 

one that serves as a substitute for an antecedent 
term and its prepositional phrase. 

Ex.— Do you know when (the time at which) John will 
return? 

Bemark. — The words that most frequently become 
conjunctive pronominal adverbs are how, when, where and 
why. m 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Prepositions are usually considered adverbs when 
they do not require a complement. 

Ex.— The waves were white below. I looked around, 
and saw the meteor pass by. 

2. Adverbs usually denote some circumstances, as, 
cause, degree, manner, number, place, time, etc., of the pred- 
icated signification of a verb, or verb-group; or, some 
degree of a manner, quality, or limitation. 

Ex.— Why did you come? The horse was so gentle 
that a child could easily guide him. 

COMPARISON, 

169. A few adverbs have, like adjectives, the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative 
degrees of comparison. 

Pos. 

Fast, 
Often, 



Com. 


Sup. 


faster, 


fastest. 


oftener, 


oftenest, 



72 Adverbs— Parsing. 

Pos. Com. Sup. 

Soon, sooner, soonest, 

Well, better, best, 

111, worse, worst, 

Little, less, least, 

Much, more, most, 

Bemark l.—More and most, less and least are prefixed 
to other adverbs in the same manner and for the same 
purpose, they are to adjectives. 

Ex.— Coldly, more coldly, most coldly. Rashly, less 
rashly, least rashly. 

Bemark 2. — Most descriptive adjectives may be con- 
verted into adverbs by adding ly. 

Ex.— Sweetly, softly, dryly, nobly, etc. 

PARSING. 

170. In parsing an adverb tell its class and its 
equivalent phrase, and the degree of comparison, if 
comparable. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Parse all the adverbs. 

1. The birds sang joyfully. 

Joyfully is an adverb— (in a joyful manner) pure, positive 
degree. 

2. Come where the roses bloom. 

Where is an adverb— (to the place in which) conjunctive, 
incomparable. 

3. Has John returned? No. 

No is an adverb— (John has not returned.), pronominal, 
incomparable. 

4. Do you know where John is? 

Where is an adverb— (the place at which), pronominal 
conjunctive, incomparable. 



Conjunctions— Classes. 73 

NOTE.— It must "be reraernbered that different uses of the 
same word often assign it, not only to different parts of 
speech, but, also, to different classes of a part of speech. 

5. Spring will soon be here. 6. The boy behaved 
badly. 7. The prisoner plead guilty, whereupon the 
judge fined him. 8. When do you expect to go to the 
city? 9. Do you know why your cousin returned so 
soon? 10. How can you afford to idle away so much of 
your time? 11. An extremely beautiful prairie lay before 
us. 12. We traveled very nearly around the world. 
13. Yes, I have seen the show lately. 14. Nay, do not 
accuse me unjustly. 15. I cannot leave home while 
mother is sick. 16. William did the work as he prom- 
ised to do it. 17. Work while the sun shines. 18. He 
has twice deceived me, and now tries to do so again. 
19. How he succeeded is not yet known here. 20. Ye 
know not whither the wind cometh. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

171. A Conjunction is a word ordinarily used 
to introduce an expression, or both to introduce 
it and to join it to a preceding expression. 

Ex.— For me to go is not necessary. That I should go 
is not necessary. John and James are amiable, out Susan 
is quite petulant. 

CLASSES. 

172. Conjunctions may be divided into two 
classes, namely, Pure Conjunctions and Pronom- 
inal Conjunctions. 

173. A Pure Conjunction is one that does 
not represent any other expression. The principal 
pure conjunctions are: — and, although, as, but, 

•except, for, if, nor, or, provided, still, than, that, 
though, unless, and yet. 



74 Conjunctions— Parsing. 

174. A Pronominal Conjunction is one that 
is usually equivalent to a phrase containing at least 
one preposition and its complement and some pure 
conjunction. 

Ex.— He learns because (for the reason that) he studies. 

The principal pronominal conjunctions are: — 
us, because, for, lest, since, seeing, then. To 
these may be added, so, therefore, whereas, and 
wherefore, which are usually adverbs. 

Bemark— Certain combinations of words are some- 
times used as connectives, and may be called Conjunctive 
Phrases. 

Ex.— As if, as though, as well as, but also, but like- 
wise, forasmuch, inasmuch as. But most of such phrases 
may be separated in analysis and parsing. 

PARSING. 

175. In parsing a conjunction tell its class, 
what it introduces, and to what it joins it, and if 
pronominal, its equivalent. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1 . Justice and mercy often are opposite. 

And is a" conjunction, pure, introducing "mercy" and 
joining it to "justice." 

2. I hope to succeed, for I have had much experience in 
the business. 

For is a conjunction, pronominal— (because— for the 
reason that), it introduces what follows, and joins it 
to what precedes. 

3. John was acquitted, but James was fined. 4. Ye" 
shall likewise perish, except ye repent. It is common for 



Interjections— Parsing. 75 

men to be mistaken. 6. Passion will become supreme 
if it be long indulged. 7. William or Joseph will do the 
work, provided you can get no one else to do it. 8. He 
is very rich, still he is not happy. 9. He w r ould consent 
rather than suffer. 10. I know that he is an exemplary 
man. 11. He will be ruined unless he desist. 12. 
Though He slay me, yet will I trust in him. 13. As you 
desire me to study grammar I will do it. 14. John was 
punished because he had been bad. 15. He hid, for they 
wished to kill him. 16. Sin no more, lest a worse thing 
come upon thee. 17. Since we must die, what profit is 
there in riches? 18. Lee, as well as Charles, went to 
Dakota. 19. You know the law, then observe its com- 
mands. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

176. An Interjection is a word or symbol 
expressive of some feeling or impulse, but which 
cannot enter into relation with any other ex- 
pression. 

Ex.— Oh, fie! it is false. 

177. The principal interjections are: — 

Ah, aha, ahoy, alack, alas, avast, avaunt, adieu; bravo; 
faugh, fie, fudge; ha, ha, ha, (laughter), ha, hail, hallo, 
hark, heigh-ho, ho, hey, hist, hurra, hush, huzza; indeed; 
la, lo; O, oh, oho; pshaw; tush, tut; welladay, whist; 
zounds. 

PARSING. 

178. An interjection is parsed by pointing it 
out and telling what part of speech it is. 

TEST EXERCISES. 

NOTE.— Other parts of speech used as mere exclamations 
should not he parsed as interjections. 



76 Interjections— Parsing 

1. Oh, were I rich! 
Oh is an interjection. 

2. Love! his thoughts do not that way tend. 
Love is a common noun used as an exclamation. 

3. Aha, you are caught in your own trap. 4. Alas! 
poor little Nell was dead. 5. O, Lord, how excellent are 
all thy works! 6. Hurra! the boy has won. 7. Humph! 
it is absurd. 8. Lo! the poor Indians! 9. Fie! 'tis an 
unweeded garden ! 10. Pshaw! he lies. 11. Welladay ! 
cried grandmamma. 12. Bravo! all exclaimed. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Parse all the words in the following: 

1. The Andes Mountains are in South America, near 
the Pacific Ocean. 2. Mr. Samuel Reed was a wealthy 
banker. 3. The singing was quite good. 4. The reading 
clone by Miss Adams was quite a treat to those that heard 
her. 5. The rippling brook has given him his sweetest 
inspirations. 6. He was able, by the power of his elo- 
quence, to hold, subdued, the fiercest passions of an in- 
furiated mob. 7. If I have done him an injustice, let 
him take of my goods till he is satisfied. 8. The rogue 
was seen running down the street, carrying his plunder 
in his hand. 9. Whatever is, should be. He should have 
been well rewarded for the services which he so effectually 
rendered. 11. John's having iso unexpectedly returned, 
was considered proof of his complicity in the unfortunate 
affair. 12. A friend of mine having called on us one day y 
greatly amused us by relating some of the stories that 
he had heard while making his tour around the world. 
13. Both horses were lame. 14. Neither boy had perform- 
ed his duty. 15. He aimed both to assist and to please 
them. 16. Whether Hannibal should subdue Rome or be 
subdued by Rome, was a question for nearly seventeen 
years. 17. Either France was too hasty, or Prussia too 
powerful; for Prussia won. 18. Neither could the one 
retreat, nor the other pursue. 19. This is the closing 
exercise in etymology. 



Sentences. Syntax. ' 77 



IF.A-:r,t I I 



SYNTAX. 

179. Syntax is that department of grammar 
which treats of the analysis and synthesis of ex- 
pressions of thought. 

180. An expression is a word or group of 
words so used as to indicate or state an idea or an 
impulse. 

181. An Element is a component part of an 
expression. 

182. Synthesis is the correct arrangement of 
the elements of an expression. 

183. Analysis consists in separating an ex- 
pression into its elements and telling their use and 
relation to one another in construction. 

SENTENCES. 

184. A Sentence is an expression comprehend- 
ing one or more subjects and one or more predica- 
tions concerning it or them. 

CLASSIFICATIONS. 

185. With reference to their predicates, sen- 
tences are divided into five kinds, namely, Declara- 
tive, Imperative, Assumptive, Indifferent, and 

Mixed Sentences. 



78 Sentences— Classifications. 

186. A Declarative sentence is one whose 
predicate consists of one or more declarative verbs, 
or verb-groups. 

Ex.— John goes to school. He reads and writes. Mary 
and Susan work and sing. They have been good girls. 

187. An Imperative sentence is one whose 
predicate consists of one or more imperative verbs, 
or verb groups. 

Ex.— John, shut the door. Do come and visit us, 
Jane. Go and sin no more. 

188. An Assumptive sentence is one whose 
predicate consists of one or more assumptive verbs, 
or verb-groups. 

Ex.— John's herding cattle on the prairies—. Wil- 
liam's having bought the horse, and sold it—. 

189. An Indifferent sentence is one whose 
predicate consists of one or more indifferent verbs, 
or verb-groups. 

Ex.— For him to go—. To be, or not to be—. For 
one to see and to doubt — . For him to have been elected 
and inaugurated—. 

BemarJc. — Assumptive and indifferent sentences are 
seldom used independent of some other expression. They 
are fully treated under "Complex Sentences" in this book. 

190. A Mixed sentence is one having two or 
more predicates some of which differ from the rest 
in the Use of the verb or verb-group. 

Ex.— John went to see the circus. Here "went" is de- 
clarative, and "to see" is indifferent. 

To avoid giving one's opinion. Here "To avoid" is 
indifferent, and "giving" is assumptive. 



Sentences— Classifications. 79 

They plotted to murder the whites. We should avoid 
offending an enemy. 

NOTE.— In determining the class of a sentence with refer- 
ence to its predicates, observe that if all of the predicates do 
not refer to the same subject or subjects, there is more than 
one sentence, though all are necessary to complete the 
sense intended. Each sentence, then, should be considered 
separately. 

Ex. — We wish him to go. 

This, as a whole, is declarative, the subject "we" 
having but one predicate, the declarative "wish;" but a 
part of this sentence, namely, "him to go," is also a sen- 
tence of which "him" is the subject, and "to go" an 
indifferent verb, is the predicate, hence, "him to go'' is an 
indifferent sentence. 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Name the class of each of the following sentences, 
also, the class of each sentence forming a part of a 
longer sentence. 

1. John reads the newspapers. 2. Shall we pay 
tribute to Home? 3. William and Mary were married 
last week. 4. They have furnished their house, and have 
commenced house-keeping. 5. William, study your 
lessons. 6. Come, Susie, and sing some for us. 7. Go, 
learn industry of the bee and the ant. 8. Children, do 
get quiet, and study awhile. 9. John having arrived, we 
welcomed him. 10. William's receiving the reward—. 
11. For John to have permitted such conduct—. 12. 
James desired to be a lawyer. 13. There is no doubt of 
his being a scholar. 14. Let us hope that England, 
having saved herself by her energy, may save Europe by 
her example. 15. Let no man at the East dream of 
liberty whatever may become of the West. 16. They 
desired to return on last Saturday. 17. The man reading 
the paper, is Mr. Smith. 18. The boy to bring the flow- 
ers, is John. 



80 Elements— Subjects. 



ELEMENTS. 

191. The elements that may be found in a sen- 
tence, may be divided into three classes, namely, 
Principal^ Subordinate, and Connective Ele- 
ments. 

192. The Principal Elements of a sentence 
are the Subject, the Predicate and the Predicate 
Complements. 

193. The Subordinate Elements of a sentence 
are the Modifiers and the Attendants. 

194. The Connectives are those that join 
other elements together. They are conjunctions, 
conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and 
conjunctive pronominal adverbs. 

Bemark.— The same word often* is used as two ele- 
ments at the same time. 

SUBJECTS. 

195. The Subject of a sentence is that of which 
the predicate asserts something, or intimates such 
assertion. 

Ex.— John studies Algebra. If he study diligently, he 
will succeed. To die is dreadful. That we must die is cer- 
tain. Who is that? 

Bemark 1.— The subject of imperative, assumptive, 
and indifferent sentences often is implied, that is, it is not 
expressed. 

Ex.— Run (thou, you, ye, some one). () To avoid () 
giving one's opinion—. 

Bemark 2.— Any expression may be used as the sub- 
ject of a sentence. 



Elements— Stjbjects.-Predicates. 81 

SUBJECTS DISTINGUISHED. 

198. Subjects are distinguished as Active, Pas- 
sive, or Neutral. 

197. An Active Subject is one that denotes 
that which exerts the signification of its predicate. 

Ex.— James runs. John owns that book. Susan has a 
new hat. 

198. A Passive Subject is one that denotes 
that which receives or suffers what* its predicate 
signifies as exerted by something else. 

Ex.— Eve was flattered by the serpent. The king was 
honored by his people. 

199. A Neutral Subject is one that is neither 
Active nor Passive. 

Ex.— Iron is heavy. Snow is white. James has been 
a good boy. 

Bemark.—A subject may be active as to one or more 
predicates, passive as to another one or more predicates, 
and neutral as to another one or more predicates in the 
same sentence. 

Ex.— God reigns in heaven, is good, and is grieved by 
man's wickedness. Here God is the active subject of 
"reigns," neutral subject of "is," and passive subject of 
"is grieved." 

PREDICATES. 

200. The Predicate of a sentence is the verb, 
or verb-group which asserts something, or intimates 
such assertion, of the subject. 

Ex. — John reads. He can read. He is good. He 
might have been worse. Be honest. () To have been loved 
by others—. May heaven bless you. 



82 Sentences— Diagram. 

DIAGRAM. 

201. A Diagram of an expression is a map of 
it showing the offices and constructive relations of 
its elements. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

202. The order of arrangement in the diagram 
is .always: 1. The subject. 2. The Predicate. 3. 
The Predicate-Complement. 4. Any Additional 
Complement* 

203. The order of arrangement in the written 
or spoken sentence, varies with the use of the sen- 
tence and the style and feeling of the author. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Point out the subjects and distinguish them; 
also, point out the predicates, and place the sub- 
jects and predicates in diagram. 

1. William \ was rewarded . 

Explanation.— Elements of the same rank occupy the 
same, or similar bases. 

Analysis.— This is a sentence of which "William" is 
the subject, passive with reference to the predicate "was 
rewarded," from which in the diagram it is separated by a 
perpendicular bar. 

2. The sun shines warm. 

Analysis.— This is a sentence of which u sun" is the 
subject, and "shines" is the predicate. The subject is 
active. 

Diagram. sun \ shines. 

3. The wind blows hard. 4. Go to the ajit, thou 
sluggard. 5. The grass is green. 6. Iron is a metal. 



Sentences— Predicate Complements. 83 

7. John has a new hat. 8. The emperor has been 
crowned. 9. Catiline was called a traitor. 10. The 
wheat has been harvested. 11. Birds fly. 12. The good 
man was happy. 13. All Europe wondered at Napoleon's 
ambition. 14. Who brought that news here? 15. Books 
may be meritorious or faulty. 16. Washington was 
elected president. 17. Garfield was assassinated. 

PREDICATE COMPLEMENTS. 

204. The Predicate Complements are the 

Attribute, the Object, and the Predicative Comple- 
ment. With these the Assumed Attribute may be 
considered. 

ATTRIBUTE. 

205. The Attribute Complement is an ex- 
pression which extends an intransitive predicate 
and relates in sense to the subject. 

NOTE.— In the diagram, the Attribute stands on the ex- 
tended base of the predicate from which it is separated by an 
oblique bar slanting" from the base upward to the left. 

3. Ex. — Grass | grows\green. 

Explanation.— This is a declarative sentence, of which 
"grass" is the subject, "grows" the predicate, and "green" 
the attribute. AVhy ? 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze the following as to subjects,, 
predicates, and attributes. 

1. Snow is white. 2. Chalk is brittle. 3. Iron is heavy. 
4. Father has grown old. 5. John arrived safe. 6. Grace 
looks good. 7. She might have been happy. 8. Our 
parents are kind to us. 9. John was a good boy. 10. The 
colonies grew strong. 11. The English government be- 
came tyrannous. 12. Mr.* Gould is quite rich. 13. Vic- 



S4 Sentences— Object. ^ 



toria was crowned queen. 14. William was made emperor. 
15. Elijah is called a great prophet. 16. Gold is consider- 
ed a noble metal. 17. Be thou honest. 18. To be happy— . 
19. Mother's being quite sick—. 

OBJECT. 

206. The Object Complement is the ex- 
pression which extends a transitive predicate and 
denotes that which receives and restricts the doing 
or possessive force of the predicate." 

NOTE.— In the diagram the object complement stands on 
the extended base of the predicate from which it is separated 
by a bar slanting from the base upward to the right. 

1. Ex. — William \ studies /algebra. 

Analysis. — This is a declarative sentence of which 
■"William" is the subject, "studies" is the predicate, and 
; 'algebra' 7 is the object complement. Why? 

Remark— Some predicates take two object comple- 
ments of which one denotes that to which the other is 
directed. 

2. Ex.— He | struck /me /blows. 

Here both "me" and "blows" are object complements. 

NOTE.— When the object to which the other is directed 
becomes the passive subject, the other becomes the comple- 
ment of a preposition implied. But when the object which 
is directed to the other becomes the passive subject, the ob- 
ject to which it is directed becomes the complement of a 
preposition eoepressetl. 

Ex.— I was struck (with) blows. Blows were struck 
against me. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze the elements, learned, in the 

following: 

1. John saw James yesterday. 2. The girls recited 
their lessons. 3. The warm sun melts the frost away. 



Sentences— Pkedicative Complements. 85 

4. Joseph interpreted Pharaoh's dream. 5. Liars should 
have good memories. 6. Mr. Jones has sold his farm to 
Mr. Smith. 7. Merchants handle goods. 8. Susan ha& 
bought a new hat for her sister. 9. The king prorogued 
parliament. 10. Whom did you call. 11. Bring your book 
to me. 12. James is reading law. 13. William asked me 
a question. 14. I taught him arithmetic. 15. John is- 
striking the horse cruel blows. 16. James's writing the 
letter — . 17. For him to have written the book—. 

PREDICATIVE COMPLEMENTS. 

207. The Predicative Complement is an 

indifferent or an assumptive predicate which com- 
bines in sense with and extends an other predicate. 

Bemark.— This complement is used only after intrans- 
itive predicates. 

NOTE. — In the diagram, the predicative complement 
stands on the extended base of the predicate from "which it is 
separated by two slanting bars beginning on the base and 
meeting above. 

Ex. — He 1 kept /\gathering/ gold. 

He 1 was seen /\en tering/ houses . 

He | ought /\to have gone. 

He | was accustomed /\to hear /flattery. 
Here "gathering," "entering," "to have gone," and 
"to hear" are predicative complements. 

Bemark. — The predicative complement may have 
either of the other complements. It must be carefully 
distinguished from the verb-complement of the passive, 
or the progressive conjugation. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze all the elements, learned, in 
the following: 

1. You need urge me no further. 2. They do not 
dare speak the truth. 3. They will not venture to offend 



Sentences— Attributes . 



the king. 4. He was persuaded to remain at home. 5. 
The city lies sleeping. 6. The guard kept waiting for 
orders. 7. He was seen pilfering the store. 8. He ought 
to have been good. 9. Who has been found transgressing 
our laws? 10. John bids to become a good lawyer. 11. 
He is thought to be honest. 

ASSUMED ATTRIBUTE. 

208. All the elements of a subordinate sentence, 
except the attribute with its modifiers, are some- 
times dropped, when the attribute so retained is 
called an Assumed Attribute. 

Remark— A subordinate sentence is one used as an 
element of another sentence. 

ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

209. When an assumed attribute extends a pred- 
icate and relates in sense to the attribute, it is 
called the Attributive Attribute. 

NOTE.— In the diagram, the attributive attribute stands 
on the extended base of the attribute from 'which it is sepa- 
rated by a bar slanting from the base upward to the left. 

Ex.— He was a man proud of his friends. 

Diagram.— He \ ivas\mari\proud. 

Analysis.— This is a delarative sentence of which "he" 
is the subject, "was" is the predicate, "man" is the attri- 
bute, and "proud" is the attributive attribute. Why? 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram as far as learned all the elements in the 
following: 

1. Napoleon was a warrior ambitious for fame. 2. The 
night is but the daylight sick. 3. It is a mountain rich 
in scenery. 4. He is a miser greedy for gold. 5. The 



Sentences— Attributes. 87 

bear is an animal tenacious of life. 6. It was an explo- 
sion terrible in its effects. 7. Washington was a patriot 
zealous in his country's defence. 8. He is a gentleman 
w T orthy of esteem. 

OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

210. When an assumed attribute extends the 
predicate and relates in sense to the object, it is 
called the Objective Attribute. 

NOTE.— In the diagram, the objective attribute stands 
upon the extended base of the object from -which it is sepa- 
rated by a bar slanting from the base-upward to the left. 

1. Ex,— They \ made/me\mad. 

2. They \ elected/ Mr. Jones\chairman. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze the following: 

1. The jury chose Mr. Keed foreman. 2. They made 
Victoria queen. 3. David struck Goliath dead. 4. Par- 
liament elected Cromwell Protector. 5. Napoleon's am- 
bition made him an object of suspicion. 6. Congress ap- 
pointed Washington commander-in-chief of the Ameri- 
can army. 7. Polonius thought Hamlet insane. 8. The 
infatuated husband thinks his homely wife really beau- 
tiful. 

BemarTc.— When the object becomes the passive sub- 
ject, the objective attribute becomes the attribute, and the 
active subject, if retained, becomes a prepositional com- 
plement. 

3. Ex. 1. — Goliath \ was struck\dead by David. 

2. Mr. Keed was chosen chairman by the convention. 3. 
He was made an object of suspicion by his ambition. 4. 
Washington was chosen commander-in-chief. 5. The 
Bible is esteemed the best of books. 



88 Sentences— Modifiers. 

MODIFIERS. 

211. A Modifier is a word or group of words so 
used as to qualify, limit, extend, fix, or vary the 
meaning of some other word or expression of which 
it is not a principal element. 

NOTE.— The usual classification of modifiers, namely, 
adjective modifiers, and adverbial modifiers, is discarded in 
this work as not only useless, but as having a tendency to 
confuse the learner. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

212. For convenience, modifiers are divided, in 
this work, into Ordinary and Appositive Modifiers, 

APPOSITIVES. 

213. An Appositive Modifier is one used to 
fix the meaning or application of another expression 
denoting the same person or thing. 

NOTE 1.— In the diagram, an appositive modifier stands 
upon its own base which rests upon a support standing upon 
the base of the modified term, the support being enclosed 
by curves. 

Ex. John 



brother (/ \) | is\sick. 



My 1 

Here "brother" and "John" denote the same person, 
and "John" determines which brother is meant, and is 
the appositive modifier of brother. 

NOTE 2.— In the diagram, an ordinary modifier stands 
upon its own base which is joined to the base of the modified 
term above it by a perpendicular bar which follows a modi- 
fier which precedes, and precedes a modifier which follows 
the modified term. But when the modifier is a prepositional 
phrase, the connecting bar stands between the preposition 



Sentences— Modifiers. 89 

and its complement. An additional short bar by the connect- 
ing bar indicates that the modifier's force extends to the next 
base above that to -which it is joined. Modifiers of a term 
should be arranged in the order in which they occur in the 
expression, as nearly as possible. 

Ex.— A beautiful nightingale was brought from the 
deep forests of Asia, to America. 



bea 


night 


ingale 




was brought 


utiful 


from 


forests to 


America. 


A| 


deep 










the | 




of 


Asia 





Analysis. — This is a declarative sentence of which the 
subject "nightingale" is modified by " beautiful," and 
"beautiful nightingale 1 ' by tw a"; the predicate "was 
brought" is modified 1st, by "from the deep forests of 
Asia," a prepositional phrase of which k *from" is the 
preposition, and.' 'forests" is its immediate complement, 
which is modified by "deep," and "deep forests" by tfc the"; 
"forests" is also modified by "of Asia," a prepositional 
phrase of which "of" is the preposition and "Asia" is its 
complement; 2d, the predicate is modified also by "to 
America," a prepositional phrase of which "to" is the 
preposition and "America" is its complement. 

TEST EXERCISE, 

Diagram and analyze in full each of the follow- 
ing: 

1. Lord Byron the poet died in Greece. 2. John 
Milton the prince of poets was blind. 3. That gentle- 
man is Mr. Jones the physician. 4. Mary is visiting her 
cousin Celia. 5. We promised to call at Mr. Keed the 
banker's. 6. T ate some very sweet apples to-day. 
7. The flowers of early spring have come. 8. The 
occasion was graced by the presence of the king. 9. A 
large flock of birds flew swiftly over the house. 10. My 
uncle gave me a line gold watch. 11. Who came with 



90 Sentences— Attendant Elements. 

you in your new buggy? 12. Bring some sweet-smelling 
myrrh. 13. How transitory are all the joys of this 
world ! 14. The snows of winter have been melted 
away. 15. Some years ago, an old German Count was 
saved from death by a very remarkable incident. 16. The 
question, "Shall we live again?" interests all. 

ATTENDANT ELEMENTS. 

214. An Attendant Element is an expression 
which is not used as a connective, principal ele- 
ment, or modifier of an other expression with which 
it stands. 

Ex.—O, Lord, how marvelous are thy works! The 
Smith, a mighty man is he. 

NOTE.— In the diagram, an attendant element is not con- 
nected with the expression with which it stands. 

Bx.—l. O, Lord, works | are\marvelous 



thy 






how 




he | is\man 








mighty 




a | 







2. smith, 



The 



Here "O," and "Lord" are attendant elements of the 
first sentence; and u The smith" is an attendant element 
of the second sentence, "Smith" is modified by "the." 
Analyze each sentence in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze in full, the following: 

1. William, you may recite your lesson. 2. The 
fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. 3. Well, now, 
what great action did he do? 4. Why, he conquered 
Tyre. 5. Alas! little Nell was dead. 6. Oh, she was 



Structure of Elements— Simple-Complex. 91 

the queen of fancy. 7. The artful villian! he deceived 
us. 8. To speak plainly, I do not like your faults. 9. Our 
fathers! where are they? 10. John having returned, I 
went to my work. 11. Hark! I hear heavenly music in 
the air. 12. Hurra! the foe flies from the field! 13. 
" Hallelujah! the angels are coming!" 

Structure of Elements. 

215. With reference to their structure, Elements 
are divided into three classes, namely, Simple, 
Complex, and Compound. 

SIMPLE ELEMENTS. 

216. A Simple Element is an expression that 
does not contain a modifier of any- of its own parts. 

Ex.— Men are mortal. Here each element, the sub- 
ject, the predicate, and the attribute, being unmodified is 
simple. 

COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

217. A Complex Element is an expression con- 
taining one or more modifiers of one or more of its 
own parts, the whole expression constituting one 
element with reference to some other expression. 

Bemark.— The modified part of an element is called 
the basis of the element, and it may be simple or complex. 

Ex.— A wealthy man can soon secure an extensive in- 
fluence. 

Diagram. man | can secure / influence. 



wealthy 



soon 



extensive 



an 



Analysis.— This is a declarative sentence of which "A 
wealthy man" is the complex subject of which "man" is 



92 Structure of Elements— Compound. 

the simple basis modified by "wealthy," a simple element 
and "wealthy man" a complex basis modified by "A" a 
simple element. "Can soon secure" is the complex predi- 
cate of which "can secure" is the simple basis, modified by 
"soon," a simple element. And "an extensive influence" 
is the complex object of which "influence" is the simple 
basis modified by "extensive" a simple element, and "ex- 
tensive influence," a complex basis modified by "an" a 
simple element. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

218. A Compound Element is an expression 
consisting of two or more simple, or complex, or 
simple and complex elements commonly joined by 
conjunctions. 

NOTE.— The conjunction is frequently omitted, the omis- 
sion being indicated by a comma. But sometimes the con- 
nective can not be supplied without a change as to some of 
the elements. 

JSx. William having married, 



i and Mary, 



live 



happily. 



Analysis.— This is a mixed sentence of which "Wil- 
liam-' and "Mary," two simple elements joined by "and," 
a simple connective element, form the compound subject. 
"Having married," a simple element, and "live happily," 
a complex element of which "live" is the simple basis 
modified by "happily," a simple element, form the com- 
pound predicate, the connective being dispensed with. 

Bemark.—In the diagram, each simple basis of a com- 
pound element stands upon its own base, the first and the 
last of which are joined to the main base at its end, the 
intervening bases being joined by dotted lines. This is 
true also when the common part of two or more elements 
is used but once. 



Structure of Elements— Compound. 93 

Ex.— He would have burned Rome, robbed and massa- 
cred its inhabitants, and seized the government. 

burned/Rome. 



He I would have 



the[ 

Analysis.— This is a declarative sentence of which 
"he" is the simple unmodified subject; "would have 
burned, robbed, massacred, seized" is the compound pred- 
icate; "would have" being the common part, is used but 
once. "Rome" is the simple object of "burned;" "its 
inhabitants" is the complex object of "robbed" and 
"massacred," "inhabitants" being the simple basis, modi- 
fied by "its" a simple element; and "the government" is 
the complex object of "seized," "government" being the 
simple basis, modified by "the," a simple element. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze, in full, each of the follow- 
ing: 

1. The winds, the trees, the shrubbery, the hills and 
valleys, in California, confound and mock the stranger. 
2. In New England, the winds hurry and scurry and 
change, often many times in a day. 3. He bought horses 
and mules. 4. These people are honest but poor. 5. 
Hannibal's whole life was a struggle against the power 
and dominion of Rome. 6. Soon we came upon a suc- 
cession of rapids and whirling cataracts. 7. He conducts 
himself proudly and nobly. 8. My subjects have re- 
ceived, at my hands, a common justice and equal bene- 



94 Phrases. 

fits. 9. I opened the channels of their commerce, and 
dug them deep, and wide, and sure. 10. He is a brave, 
noble and generous man. 

Diagram. He | is \ man 



brave 
noble 


' 




and generous i 


a | 





Here "a" modifies "brave, noble, and generous man." 

PHRASES. 

219. A Phrase is an expression comprehend- 
ing two or more related ideas, but not both a sub- 
ject and a predication. 

Ex.— A very rich man. By the river. 

220. Phrases are divided into two classes, namely, 
Word Phrases and Prepositional Phrases. 

221. A Word Phrase is an an expression con- 
sisting of a simple basis and its modifiers. 

Ex.— The old Liberty Bell. A rich mai\. 

222. A Prepositional Phrase is an expression 
comprehending a preposition and its complement. 

Ex.— Amid the confusion,— on the mountain— by the 
river's bank— in dreams. 

NOTE 1 .—The preposition is often omitted when its force 
is clearly implied. 

Ex.— Give (to) me your book. I bought (for) John a 
new hat. 

NOTE 2.— The complement of a preposition may be a word, 
a phrase, or a sentence. 



Phrases. 



95 



Ex.— He carae with me, from beyond the sea. He knew 
of John's having the book. 

Remark. — Frequently a phrase is taken as a unit of 
thought, and when it is thus considered it may be any 
element except the predicate. 

NOTE.— In the diagram, a phrase taken as a unit stands 
upon its own "base which rests upon a support which stands 
upon the base upon which the phrase would stand were it a 
word. 



Ex. 1. 



Snow"' 



Beautiful 


/ 


\ | is\poem 


"The | 




a 


popular 















Here "The Beautiful Snow*' is taken as a unit of 
thought, and is the subject of the sentence. In the phrase 
"a popular poenA,""poenr' is taken astheunitof thought, 
hence the difference in the diagrams. 







in 


woods 






expression 


(/ 


the 


j\phrase 


The 






prepositional 






a | I 







Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze in full. 

1. The book "The American Bastile" was written by 
Marshall. 2. The title of the poem is "The Wild 



96 Structure of Sentences. 

Gazelle." 3. Have you read u Churchill's Grave?" 4. I 
have been interested in " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 5. John 
returned from beyond the mountains, yesterday. 



John | returned beyond 


mountains 




from / 


'■\ the| 


X 


yesterday. 



" Yesterday" is the complement of an implied prepo- 
sition, indicated in the diagram by X. "Beyond the 
mountains" is the complement of "from." 

6. What kind of an expression is "From the painted 
windows?" 7. The teacher diagramed the phrase* 'with- 
out an enemy in the world." 8. u Within the church" is 
a prepositional phrase. 

Structure of Sentences. 

223. With reference to their structure, sentences 
are divided into three classes, namely, Simple, 
Complex, and Compound. 

224. A Simple Sentence is one in which all the 
predicates have the same subject or subjects. 

Ex.— The sun shines and warms the earth. John and 
James went to town to see the circus. He plotted to burn 
Rome, massacre the senate, and seize the government. 

225. A Complex Sentence is one so constructed 
that some element of it is a sentence, or that the 
same expression is an element of each of two sen- 
tences. 

Ex. 1.— We know that we must die. 2. We asked 
John to bring us some flowers. Here (1,) u that we must 
die," is a sentence used as the object-complement of 



Clauses as Elements. 97 

"know," hence, the sentence of which it is an element, is 
complex. And (2,) u John" is the object-complement of 
u asked," and the subject "to bring, etc." 

Bemark — Each sentence of a complex sentence is 
called a clause. 

226. A Compound sentence is one consisting 
of two or more simple, or complex, or simple and 
complex sentences. 

Ex.— Birds fly, but fishes swim. Train the children 
in the way in which they should go, and the vices which 
now lead so many to dishonor will be shriveled up. 
"Silesia had been occupied without a struggle; but the 
Austrian troops were advancing to the relief of the 
fortresses which still held out." 

Bemark. — The simple and the complex sentences of 
which a compound sentence consists, are called members. 
The members of a compound sentence are connected by 
conjunctions only, but the connective is frequently 
omitted. 

Declarative and Imperative Clauses 
as Elements. 

227. A Clause may be used as — 1, The Sub- 
ject. 

NOTE.— A clause element is diagramed first as a sentence,, 
its appropriate base resting' upon a support which stands 
upon the appropriate base of the sentence of which it is an 
element. 

Ex. That he | is\ guilty 



has been proven . 



Analysis.— This a complex sentence the subject of 
which is a simple sentence, of which "That" is an intro- 
ductory connective, "he" the simple subject, "is the 



98 Clauses as Elements. 

simple predicate, and "guilty" the simple attribute. 
"Has been proven" is the simple predicate of the complex 
sentence. 

2. That the earth is a sphere was long ago proven. 
3. That Mr. Smith was sincere cannot be doubted. 4. 
Who the stranger is, has not been ascertained. 5. That 
polygamy is antagonistic to enlightened civilization is 
well established by ancient and modern history. 6. What 
caused the catastrophe is not known. 

7. he | died, 



How 



has been reported. 



not 



8. When he will return, is a matter of conjecture. 
9. Where he lives, is not known here. 10. Why John 
did not keep his promise, remains without any satisfac- 
tory explanation. 

A clause may be used as — 2. Attribute Com- 
plement 

Ex. 



truth 


that he | was\surprised 




|is\ / 


\ greatly. 




The 









% My opinion is that your friend will not return. 
3. The question was "What shall we do?" 4. The in- 
quiry was. who would try the experiment. 5. What was 
to be decided, was, when we should start. 6. The mat- 
ter of surprise was, how such things could happen in our 
country. 7. Their earnest wish was, that we should 
abandon our cause, and accept their proposition. 8. The 
inquiry now is, " Why has an investigation been demanded 
by them?" 9. The agreement was, that he should trans- 



Clauses as Elements-. 



99 



act the business, and report immediately. 10. The only 
wonder was, how one head could contain so much knowl- 
edge. 

A Clause may be used as — 3. Object Comple- 
ment. 





-1. 


We 


that we | must die 


Ex.- 


| know f / / 


\ x 


time 










some 1 



2. He promised that he would return the money. 
3. The world will not anxiously ask who you are. 4. 
History teaches that liberty cannot be sustained without 
intelligence. 5. We do not know that we shall not die 
to-morrow. 7. The lecturer showed us how a fly walks 
on the ceiling. 8. We do not know how, or when, or 
where we shall die. 9. Can you tell why you are study- 
ing grammar? 10. We believe that the highest happiness 
consists in virtue. 

A Clause may be used as — 4. An Appositive 
Modifier. 

that earth | is \plane 



Ex.—l. 



2. His advice that we should attend the lecture was 
not favorably received. 3. The hope that we shall suc- 
ceed on to-morrow still cheers us. 4. The lecturer justly 
criticized the proposition that all men are created equal. 
5. Many a drunkard has been made by the delusion, that 
a moderate indulgence in the use of intoxicating liquors 
is harmless. 6. The general issued the order that the 



the 
idea 


(/ 


a 1 
\) | has been exploded 


The 






for 


centuries. 



100 



Clauses as Elements. 



army should go into winter quarters. 7. Great excite- 
ment was created by the report that gold had been found 
in large quantities. 8. It was his belief that merit 
should be recognized. 9. It remains to be seen how we 
shall succeed. 

NOTE.— In the last two sentences above, the clause is in 
apposition with "it." 

A Clause may be used as — 5. An. Ordinary 
Modifier. 

Ex.— 1. 



2. 



Tl 


men | 


were \ robbers. 


le 


1. we | saw/ whom 




! 
/k 


He 


| despiseth/soul 






his own 






2 


. that | refuseth/ 


/instruction. 




i 




3. 


alarm | was given 


the 


when 




He | fled 


\ 








/ 







4. mountain | is\steep 



The 



so 1 4. that we | can ascend/it. 



not 



Clauses as Elements. 101 



5. nothing | can be said. 



He j is\man against 



whom 



Explain the above diagrams. 

6. The pleasures that are lighted by this world are 
evanescent. 7. He is a man that would scorn a wrongful 
act. 8. We found the place which you described. 9. 
William did the work as we desired. 10. We hurried 
because we were late. 11. Many fled, for the danger was 
imminent. 12. The armies fought where they met. 

13. His country needed soldiers, therefore he enlisted. 

14. Ralph was so dishonest that no one would trust him. 

15. William was as prudent as he was good. 16. A hill 
is not so high as a mountain [is high]. 17. It was a dis- 
pute in which I had no interest. 

A Clause may be used as — 6. A Prepositional 
Complement. 

Bemark.— The preposition is, perhaps, often implied 
than expressed when a clause is thus used. 

Ex. — He 1 assured/us that we | should be invited. 

(of) 1 



TEST EXERCISE. 

2. We were informed that it was worthless. 3. I 
am not certain how the difficulty began. 4. We were 
not sure when our friends would return. 5. What have 
I to say why sentence of death should not be pronounced 
against me? 6. They were desirous that James should 
be a lawyer. 7. I have much to say why my reputation 
should be rescued from the false accusations which have 
been made against it. 8. I must call your attention to 



102 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

how matters were at the time of this publication. 9. Our 
friend was mistaken as to when the company would re- 
turn. 10. He was anxious that we should go. 

Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

Bemark.— Assumptive and indifferent clauses may be 
used in all the ways that declarative and imperative 
clauses are used; but as they have some additional uses, 
and as their predicates together with their complements 
and modifiers may be considered apart from their sub- 
jects, these clauses are treated separately in this work. 

228. The subject of an assumptive, or an indiffer- 
ent clause, whether implied or expressed, may be 
Absolute or Assumed. 

229. An Absolute subject is one which would 
remain the subject, if the clause were converted to 
a declarative clause. 

Ex.— His having come, surprised us. For him to have 
come, surprised us. That he should have come, surprised 
us. 

Here "/lis," "him," and "he" are but different forms 
of the same subject. 

230. An Assumed subject is one which would 
not remain the subject if the clause were converted 
to a declarative clause. 

Ex.— The boy riding that horse is my brother. The 
boy to ride that horse is my brother. The boy who rides, 
etc. The boy who will ride, etc. 

Here "boy" the subject of "riding" and u to ride" 
does not remain the subject of "rides," and "will ride," 
but in the declarative clauses is represented by "who" the 
subject of the declarative clause. Observe also that 



Analysis 1. — This is a complex sentence, of which the 
subject is an assumptive clause of which "John's" is the 
subject, "forging" is the predicate, and "note" the object, 
modified by "the;" of the complex sentence, "had been 
intimated" is the predicate, modified by "to his father," a 
prepositional phrase, of which "to" is the preposition, 
and "'father" modified by "his" is the complement. 

2. This is a complex sentence of which the subject is 
an assumptive clause, of which the subject is implied, the 
predicate is "reading," and the object "books" modified 
by "good;" of the complex sentence the predicate is com- 
pound, consisting of the assumptive "being" of which 
"profitable" is the attribute complement, and the declar- 
ative "should be encouraged." 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



103 



changing the assumptive or the indifferent clause to 
the declarative, changes the general sentence from the 
simple to the complex form. 

THE ASSUMPTIVE CLAUSE. 

231. An assumptive clause having an absolute 
subject expressed or implied, may be used as, — 

1. The Subject of another expression. 
Ex. John's 1 forging/note, 

the 



1. 



had been intimated 



to 



father. 



his 



2. 



Reading / books 



good 



being\profitable , 



should be encouraged 



Analysis 1. — This is a complex sentence of which the 
subject is an assumptive clause, of which "John's" is the 
subject, "forging" is the predicate, "books" is the object, 
modified by "good;" of the complex sentence, "had been 
intimated" is the predicate, modified by "to his father," a 
prepositional phrase, of which "father" is the comple- 
ment, modified by "his." 

2. This is a complex sentence of which the subject is 
implied, the predicate is "reading," and the object "books" 
modified by "good;" of the complex sentence the predi- 
cate is compound, consisting of the assumptive "being" 
of which "profitable" is the attribute complement, and 
the declarative "should be encouraged." 



104 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



TEST EXERCISES. 

3. William's coming so hurriedly from the woods 
greatly excited our guide. 4. Editing a large daily paper 
is an arduous task. 5. His being found on the premises 
Is an unfortunate circumstance against him. 6. The 
showman's going into the cage with the lion greatly 
frightened the boys. 7. Carrying concealed weapons, 
being an offence against the law, should be suppressed. 
£. The clerk's granting the license was not a violation of 
law. 9. Giving to the poor your worn out clothing is 
stingy charity. 



2. Attribute Complement, 

r Ex. What 1 surprised/me, 



your [ being connected 



was 






Analyze in full. / 



with 



affair. 



the 



x | herding/cattle 



2. 



occupation | is s 



His 



on 1 prairies. 
the 



3. The cause of my failure was your neglecting your 
duty and my interests. 4. My most pleasant occupation 
was driving in the parks. 5. His excuse was his being 
unacquainted with the business. 6. What secured him 
the appointment was his friend's writing a letter of 
recommendation to the department. 7. The cause of my 
happiness is your winning so valuable a prize. 



Assumptive and Indifferent Glauses. 



105 



3, An Appositive Modifier. 





my | 


going 


B 




X 


horn 


expression (/ 


\) | is\clause 


The 




assumptive 






an | 





Ex.— I. 



Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. The language, your being a traitor, offended him. 
3. The song, "Coming Through the Rye," was exquisitely 
rendered. 4. The delightful task, studying Shakespeare's 
plays, occupied my leisure hours. 

4. A Prepositional Complement. 

x I producing / death. 



Ex.— 1. Portions 1 may be removed 



of 



brain 



without 



the 



Analyze in full. 



TEST EXERCISE. 

2. John told us of his brother's writing a book. 3. 
We were relieved by some men's coming in sight. 4. His 
penury is the result of recklessly speculating in exchange. 
5. Much of his time was spent in reading novels. 6. We 
were astonished at the boy's undertaking so hazardous an 
adventure. 7. The British were surprised by Washing- 
ton 's suddenly withdrawing his forces from New York. 



106 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 
5. An Attendant Element 

Ex.—l. Father | having returned, we [ proceeded. 
2. x 1 Speaking you | have deceived/me. 



plainly, 



TEST EXERCISE. 

3. The company having had a pleasant time, we 
returned. 4. The general having given the order, the 
assault was made precisely at noon. 5. Admitting your 
premises, your conclusion is wrong. 6. Lincoln having 
been assassinated, Andrew Johnson became president of 
the United States. 7. The Indians having committed 
many depredations, General Wayne was sent against 
them. 8. The lights having been extinguished, the 
charter was carried oif. 9. Speaking of adventurers, 
have you heard of Stanley? 

232. An assumptive clause having an absolute 
subject expressed, may be used as an Object Com- 
plement. 

your | taking/books. 



Ex.— 1. We 1 forbid/ /j\ our 



TEST EXERCISE. 

2. We oppose our friend's pursuing such a course. 
3. Business prevented my attending the races. 4. The 
North opposed the government's permitting the extension 
of slavery. 5. The police prevented the mob's doing 
much injury to the property. 6. We thought William's 
giving so freely was WTong. 7. They ignored our having 
secured proofs. 8. The warden forbade the prisoners' 
talking. 9. I forgot his having brought the flowers. 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 107 

ASSUMED SUBJECT. 

233. An Assumptive clause may disregard an 
implied absolute subject and assume as its subject, — 

1. An Attribute Complement. 

Ex.— I. It | is\book 1 written 



for amusement. 



Analysis.— This is a complex sentence consisting of a 
declarative and an assumptive clause, the declarative 
clause being "It is a book," of which "It" is the simple 
subject, "is" the simple predicate, and "a book" the com- 
plex attribute of which "book" is the simple basis, modi- 
fied by "a," a simple element: and the assumptive clause 
being "a book written for amusement," of which "a book" 
is the complex assumed subject, of which "book" is the 
simple basis, modified by u a," and the complex predicate 
is "written for amusement," of which "written" is the 
simple basis, modified by "for amusement," a preposi- 
tional phrase of which "amusement" is the simple com- 
plement. 

Observe that the assumptive clause can be expanded 
into a declarative clause by supplying a subject and a de- 
clarative group-verb, thus: It is a book which was written 
for amusement. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. He is a boy possessing great intelligence. 3. Wash- 
ington was a man greatly loved by his countrymen. 4. 
John became an officer having command of a great army 
in India. 5. She was a lady accomplished in the arts. 

2. An Object Complement. 

Ex. I | know/man | riding/horse. 

the that 

Analyze in full, 



108 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

2. I have just read " Cousin Maud" written by Mrs. 
Holmes. 3. William owns a large farm lying in the val- 
ley. 4. We easily found the place described by our friend. 
5. We purchased those beautiful pictures, hanging against 
the wall, at Mr. Jones's. 6. The lecturer described the 
people living in the valleys of the West. 

3. A Prepositional Complement. 

1. James | drew/picture 

a I of house | standing 



a | on 



hill 



Here u house" is the complement of "of," and also the 
assumed subject of "standing." 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. We followed the priest into a large room filled with 
tall wooden presses. 3. I have plucked many a rose from 
the bush standing by the flowing spring. 4. Our attention 
was attracted by a young shepherd playing on a flute. 5. 
We listened to the sweet melody borne on the evening 
breeze. 6. We stood on the bank of a mountain brook 
winding its way among the rocks. 7. He lives in affluence 
obtained dishonestly. 



4. An Appositive Modifier. 



NOTE.— An appositive modifier may be considered a& 
assumed attribute. 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 109 



x \dramatist | living 

f: 

Shakespeare 1 



at 



time 



furnished/theaters that 



with 



dramas, the of 



London 



Analysis. — This is a complex sentence of which "Shakes- 
peare" is the subject; "Skakespeare" is also the assumed 
subject of the implied predicate of which "a dramatist" is 
the complex attribute complement, of which "dramatist" is 
the simple basis, modified by "a," a simple element. "Dra- 
matist" is an assumed attribute, because the predicate intro- 
ducing it is merely implied; it is also the assumed subject 
of the assumptive clause of which "living at that time" is 
the complex predicate, of which "living" is the simple 
basis, modified by "at that time," a prepositional phrase 
of which "that time" is the complex complement, of 
which "time" is the simple basis, modified by "that," a 
simple element. Of the subject "Shakespeare," "fur- 
nished" is the declarative predicate. Complete the 
analysis. 

NOTE.— Any expression having an implied predicate may 
have an assumed attribute. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. Lee, the Mountain Meadow fiend, captured many 
years afterward, was shot. 3. That is Mr. Keed, a man 
possessing great wealth in California. 4. They selected 
Washington, a man greatly respected, commander-in- 
chief. 5. The papers were prepared by Mr. Everets, a 
man standing in the foremost rank of lawyers. 6. I have 
just read "The Dream," a poem written by Lord Byron. 

DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION. 

234. An Assumptive clause, having assumed a 



110 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



subject, may, apart from its subject, as a phrase, 
be, — 

1. An Object Complement, and a part of 
a compound predicate. 

_ avoided / 
Ex.— 1- lawyer 1 ' 



The 



\ 



giving/opinion. 



/ 



his 1 

EXPLANATION— "Giving his opinion" stands upon an in- 
verted support which rests upon the base of the object com- 
plement. 

Analysis.— This is a simple sentence of which "The 
lawyer" is the complex subject of "avoided," and also the 
assumed subject of "giving." "Avoided" is the simple 
declarative predicate, of which "giving his opinion" is the 
complex object complement. "Giving" is the simple as- 
sumptive predicate of which "his opinion" is the com- 
plex object complement, of which "opinion" is the simple 
basis, modified by "his" a simple element. 

_ To avoid / 

2. x| 



/ 



giving/ opinion, 



one's 



| is \ difficult 



often 



Here the implied subject of "to avoid" is also the as- 
sumed subject of "giving." 

Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE, 

3. We should avoid injuring others. 4. The boy should 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. Ill 

quit associating with them. 5. A dishonest debtor shuns 
meeting his needy creditor. 6. John admitted having 
taken the money. 7. The prisoner acknowledged taking 
the horse. 8. The witness denied making that statement. 

2. A Prepositional Complement and a 
part of a compound predicate. 



Ex—l. William 



was \ conscious 




1 not of 




i \ 

, j having committed/crime 


/ 




any 







To be\desirous 



i 



of 



beingMawyer 



is \ honorable. 



Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

3. They greatly rejoiced at meeting their friends. 4 
Sailors use stones for ballasting ships. 5. The naughty 
boy delights in causing pain. 6. Susan was very desirous 
of winning the prize. 7. They were protected from being 
arrested. 8. John was disappointed of receiving a letter 
to-day. 9. The gallant army, in assaulting the fortifica- 
tion, lost many brave men. 



3. A member of a compound predicate and 



112 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



modifier joined by a conjunctive adverb. 



read 



'Paradise Lost" 



Ex. 



I I 



\ 



attending/college 



while 



/ 



Here u while attending college," modifies "read," and 
"while" modifies "attending." 

Analyze in full. 



TEST EXERCISE. 

2. While traveling for pleasure, I staid several days 
in Rome. 3. When surrounded by superior forces, the 
regiment surrendered. 4. While standing on deck I saw 
three swans. 5. The men, while working in the gravel 
pit, made a startling discovery. 6. Burr, while pretending 
friendship to Blannerhassett, was robbing him. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze in full each of the follow- 
ing examples: 

1. Mary's being a scholar was admitted. 2. Keeping 
the books for our firm is hard work. 3. What most 
pleased me, was our friend's giving us a most cordial re- 
ception. 4. His business was, superintending the farm. 5. 
Contentment is, being satisfied with all things. 6. He used 
the expression "Your intruding upon our attention is un- 
warranted. 7. The crime of being a young man is charged 
upon me. 8. A mother is pleased with her child's obeying 
her. 9. Sheridan having arrived, the battle was renewed 
with vigor and success. 10. I have been reading a book 
written by Charles Dickens. 11. We looked toward the 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



113 



mountains standing in the distance against the clear sky. 
12. The boy was unjustly accused of taking his uncle's 
horse without permission. 13. John was desirous of mak- 
ing a great fortune. 14. While too assiduously prosecut- 
ing his collegiate studies, James injured his health. 15. 
Mr. Jones, an attorney possessing great influence in court, 
undertook the cause. 



THE INDIFFERENT CLAUSE, 

235. An Indifferent Clause having an absolute 
subject expressed, and introduced by "for" may be 
used as the subject or attribute of another expres- 
sion. 

Ex. For us | to know/faults 



/ 


our 
\ | is \ profitable. 


for army | to take/quarters 


the 1 


winter 




order | was N 


\ / 


\ 





The 



Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

3. For a man to trust himself under all circumstances 
is often dangerous. 4. For a man to forgive his traducer, 
requires magnanimity. 5. For one to be called proud is 
one's misfortune. 6. Our wish was for him to be a law- 
yer. 7. The shepherd's desire was for his flock to be 
sheltered from the raging storm. 8. The verdict should 
be for him to be sent to the state's prison during his life. 



114 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

236. An Indifferent Clause having an absolute 
subject implied may be used as the subject or at- 
tribute of another expression. 

x 1 To be\contented x | to be\happy. 



is 



Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. To be haughty is, to be contemptible. 3. Your 
duty is, to maintain your good name. 4. His ambition 
was, to become famous. 5. A skillful physician's first 
act is, to make a careful diagnosis of the disease. 6. To 
do our whole duty requires great patience. 7. To be ig- 
norant of the laws is, to be liable to prosecution. 8. The 
curse of Kings is, to be attended by sycophants. 9. To 
be profligate is, to be unworthy of respect. 10.. One of 
his habits is, never to slight a person on account of ap- 
pearance of dress. 

237. An Indifferent Clause having an absolute 
subject expressed, may be used as object complement 
of another expression. 

John | to be\lawyer. 



Ex.— 1. We I desire 



NOTE —The clause must have its absolute, not an assumed 
subject, in this use. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. We do not know the house to be haunted. 3. Did 
the colonel order the horse to be saddled? 4. We thought 
him to be an honest man. 5. Permit me to assist you. 6. 
My parents wished me to be a farmer. 7. Mother desires 
us to return early. 8. We understood it to be Mr. Smith. 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



115 



238. An Indifferent Clause having an absolute 
subject expressed or implied, may be used as a 
prepositional complement. 

Ex.— I. We 1 desire/nothing him | to return. 



but 



for 



2. Nothing | remains 



but 



to carry / war. 



on the 



NOTE.— The preposition is frequently implied, and cannot 
be literally supplied •without violence to elegance of style. 
When the preposition "for" introduces the clause, the intro- 
ductory "for" is omitted. 

Ex.— They prayed for (for) the war to close. 
TEST EXERCISE. 

3. Nothing remains but for us to do our duty. 4. His 
last inducement to study economy had been swept away. 
5. Everything except to love him was done for him. 6. 
Something to encourage him must be done. 7. But little 
except to pass long resolutions was done. 8. They were 
anxious for the meeting to close speedily. 9. They plead 
for him to return the child. 

239. An Indifferent Clause having an absolute 
subject expressed or implied, may be used as an 
appositive modifier. 

for John | to be\lawyer, 



Ex.—l. wish, (/ 



\) | can be realized. 



Father's 



not 



116 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

NOTE.— A clause, frequently, is represented by "it," and 
then the clause is transferred to some other place in the sen- 
tence; but in the diagram, the clause stands as an appositive 
of "it." 

Ex. — It is wrong for us to deceive a friend. 

for us 1 to deceive/friend 



It (/ \) 1 is\ wrong. 



Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE 

3. Our wish for father to return has been denied us. 
4. Our intention to remain was thwarted. 5. The order to 
fire was given at the critical moment. 6. His wish to see 
other countries was gratified. 7. Is it lawful for us to pay 
tribute to Caesar? 8. It is wrong for us unlawfully to take 
anothers' property. 9. His desire to be revenged was mani- 
fest. 10. It was finally determined for our guide to make 
an investigation. 

240. An Indifferent Clause may be used as an 
attendant element. 

Ex. x 1 To tell/truth, he | does like/faults. 



the 1 not I your 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. To be plain with you, he thinks you quite unreason- 
able. 3. But, to continue my story, we started at dawn. 

4. For him to be guilty of such conduct! I am astonished. 

5. Nay, but so basely to deceive me! who would have 
believed him capable of such conduct? 

ASSUMED SUBJECTS. 

241. An Indifferent Clause may disregard its 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 117 

absolute subject, and, in all respects like the As- 
sumptive Clause, assume a subject. 

JEx. — 1. It | was\circumstance | to be deplored. 



2. We | sent/ John | to bring/mail. 

the 1 

3. We 1 sent 

! 

for 1 him | to bring/wood. 
some 



NOTE.— Each of the above sentences is complex. In the 
first, "circumstance" is the attribute of the declarative, and the 
assumed subject of the indifferent clause. 

In;the second, "John" is the object of the declarative, and 
the assumed subject of the indifferent clause. 

In the third, "him" is the prepositional complement in the 
declarative, and the assumed subject of the indifferent clause. 

Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

4. He was a man to be feared. 6. It was a scene to 
freeze one's senses. 6. He was a soldier to be trusted in 
battle. 7. Susan invited her friends to take tea with her. 

8. The minister wrote a letter to be read at the meeting. 

9. The company built several houses to be occupied by the 
miners. 10. The hunter takes his dog to find game. 11. 
My friend wrote to me to buy the farm for him. 12. We 
looked for a guide to show us the way. 13. They agreed 
upon the course to be pursued. 14. They consulted about 
the methods to be used. 15. Mr. Wilson, a man to be 
trusted in the business, was duly commissioned. 16. We 
were speaking of Mr. Allen, the man to be elected next 
Tuesday. 



118 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION. 

242. An Indifferent clause apart from its as- 
sumed subject, may be a member of a com- 
pound predicate, and, — 

1. An Object Complement. 

desired / 



Ex.— 1. John 



to study/botany. 



NOTE.— Here "to study botany" is the object complement 
of "desired," the declarative member of the compound predi- 
cate. "To study" the indifferent member of the predicate as- 
sumes "John" as its subject, and "botany" is its object ele- 
ment. 

Analyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. William decided to become a farmer. 3. They ex- 
pected to accomplish much good. 4. God promised Noah 
to save him from the flood. 5. The general determined to 
chastise the enemy severely. « 



2. A Prepositional Complement. 

was\eager 




n 

Ex.— 1. child | | i very 


X 




1 1 • 
The 1 I i to see/s 


\ 
how 


/ 


tt 


ie 







Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 119 



is\stingy 



He 



enough 



to be called\miser. 



Anatyze in full. 

TEST EXERCISES. 

3. The children manifested great anxiety to visit their 
cousins. 4. John was anxious to become a good scholar. 
5. Columbus went to Spain to solicit assistance. 6. Henry 
was too indolent to succeed. 7. James was not able to find 
the other boys. 8. He manifested a disposition to injure 
us. 9. He expressed a desire to see the works. 10. He 
made a threat to injure us. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Diagram and analyze in full. 

1. For one to neglect health is folly. 2. It is coward- 
ice for a man to avoid responsibility. 3. Father's desire 
was, for John to be a merchant. 4. It is dangerous to 
trust only ourselves, o. His promise was, to return the 
money to-morrow. 6. To be rich may be, to be miserable. 
7. We desired our cousins to meet us in the city. 8. The 
boy did everything except to bring some water. 9. To 
confess the truth, I do not like your faults. 10. James 
has shown an ability to forgive his enemies. 11. Susan 
expressed a desire to be a milliner. 12. Napoleon was 
ambitious to rule the world. 13. The man killed the rob- 
ber to save his own life. 14. Let John ride the horse to 
town. 15. They selected Mr. Jones to decide the dispute. 
16. We wrote to Mary to send us her picture. 17. 
Arnold, a man to be execrated through all time, attempted 
to betray the Americans to the British. 



120 Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 

STRUCTURE OF THE CLAUSE-ELEMENT. 

243. A sentence, used as an element, may be 
Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

Remark. — As numerous exercises have been given, in 
which the simple sentence, or clause, has been used as an 
element, complex and compound elements consisting of 
clauses will now be briefly considered. We have seen 
what elements the clause, whether declarative, imperative, 
assumptive, or indifferent may be; and it is necessary only 
to give some exercises in which sentences, used as ele- 
ments, are complex, or compound. 

COMPLEX CLAUSES AS ELEMENTS. 

Ex.— 1. "He | despiseth/soul" 



man | has said/ / 


\ 


his own 




wise 




that | refuseth/ 


instruction. 


A|| 




/ 


\ 



Analysis.— This is a complex sentence of which "A 
wise man" is the complex subject, "has said," is the predi- 
cate, and "He that refuseth instruction despiseth his own 
soul" the complex object complement — a complex sen- 
tence of which "He that refuseth instruction" is the com- 
plex subject, "despiseth," the predicate, and "his own 
soul" the complex object. Of the subject "He" is the 
simple basis, modified by "that refuseth instruction," a 
simple sentence of which "that" is both the connective 
and simple subject, "refuseth" the simple predicate, and 
"instruction" the simple object. 

2. That the public should so severely condemn a man 
who has erred only once, is strange. 3. My opinion is that 
a man who will steal, will lie. 4. John promised me that 
he would lend me the book which his teacher gave him. 5 
We were frightened at the thought that the tree under 



Assumptive and Indifferent Clauses. 



121 



which we had taken shelter, might be struck by light- 
ning. 6. This is the cat that caught the rat that ate the 
moth that lay in the house that Jack built. 7. We wish, 
that whosoever, in all coming time, shall turn his eyes 
hither, may behold that the place is not undistinguished, 
where the first great battle of the revolution was fought. 
8. We wish, finally, that the last object on the sight of him 
who leaves his native shore, and the first to gladden his 
who revisits it, may be something which will remind him 
of the liberty and the glory of his country. 9. To be con- 
tent with what we have, is happiness. 10. We were tired 
of hearing the man speak blasphemy in public. 11. While 
attending college, James injured his eyes by reading too 
much at night. 12. I was surprised to-day on receiving a 
letter written by an old friend of mine now residing in 
Calcutta. 13. To vote to support that measure is, to op- 
pose your own best interest. 14. It is impossible to hope 
to bring that. 15. Being about to purchase the farm, I 
desired my father to go with me to see it. 



COMPOUND CLAUSE ELEMENTS. 

That earth I rotates 



the 


/ 


on 


axis 






its 1 
that it | revolves 




and 


around 


sun 




the 1 




\ / 


\ | are\facts 








admitted 





Analyze in full. 



122 Compound Sentences. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

2. The opinion of many naturalists is, that the climate 
of the northern hemisphere has changed, and that its mean 
temperature once resembled that of the present tropics. 3. 
His defence was, that he had not received the general's 
order, and that he was surprised by the enemy. 4. With 
one voice they cried— "Let us fight for our liberties ! let 
us march against Philip ! let us conquer or die !" 5. I call 
that mind free, which sets no bounds to its love; which is 
not imprisoned in itself; which delights in virtue, and 
which measures its prospects of future happiness by the 
good it stimulates in this life. 6. We invoke the hasten- 
ing of the time when there shall be no North, no South, 
no East, no West in our country; when political asperities 
shall no longer array one section of our commonwealth 
against another, and when the ennobling avocation of peace 
shall obliterate the bitter recollections of war. 7. His 
ambition was, to be popular and to drive the fastest 
horses in the city. 8. The book's having been published 
and your having read it are not sufficient proofs to con- 
vince me of its being worthy of popularity. 9. Your hav- 
ing offended him and his having resented the offence, lower 
you and him in our estimation. 10. For John to come to 
us, or for us to go to him was impossible at that time. 

Compound Sentences. 

NOTE.— To analyze or diagram a compound sentence, sep- 
arate it into the simple or complex sentences composing it, 
and analyze or diagram each member separately, joining them 
as members of a compound element are joined. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. John gave me an apple, and I ate it. 
Diagram. John | gave / apple, 

and j x me an | 



1 1 ate/it. 



Change of Structure. 123 

Analysis.— This is a compound sentence consisting of 
two simple declarative sentences, namely, " John gave me 
an apple; I ate it," joined by "and." Complete the 
analysis. 

2. I am a pebble, but who art thou? 3. The farmer 
sent for his friends, but they would not come to help him 
cut his wheat. 4. They are confident of success, yet we 
fear that they may be disappointed. 5. He has been ad- 
monished, still he persists. 6. They came, notwithstand- 
ing they knew the privations of a new country. 7. He 
knew that the dog was dangerous, nevertheless he entered 
the enclosure. 8. They inaugurated their policy, although 
they knew it was not sanctioned by their constituents. 9. 
Train the children in the way in which they should go, and 
the vices which now lead so many to dishonor, will be 
shriveled up. 10. "Silesia had been occupied without a 
struggle; but the Austrian troops were advancing to the 
relief of the fortresses which still held out." 

Change of Structure, 

244. One or more of the members of a com- 
pound declarative predicate may, sometimes, be 
changed to the assumptive, and the connective 
omitted. 

Ex.— The horse became frightened and ran away. 
The horse becoming frightened, ran away. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

NOTE.— Change all the members but one of declarative 
compound predicates to assumptive predicates, and explain 
the effect. 

1. The man died and left a large estate. 2. The mer- 
chant sold his store and bought a farm near the city. 3. 
The bird sang its little song and then flew away. 4. The 
detective followed the burglar f arrested him, and put him 
into the jail. 5. They put a crown of thorns upon his 



124 Change of Structure. 

head, and bowed themselves, in mockery, before him. 6. 
He sprang into the saddle, dashed his spurs against his 
horse and escaped. 

245. A declarative clause may be changed to an 
assumptive clause. 

1. By changing the predicate to an assumptive and 
usually omitting the connective. 

Ex.— Father has returned, and I can go. 
Father having returned, I can go. 

2. By changing the predicate to an assumptive, and 
the subject from the nominative form to the possessive, 
and omitting the introductory connective. 

Ex. — That father should have returned surprised us. 
Father's having returned surprised us. 

3. By dropping the subject, and changing the predi- 
cate to an assumptive which assumes as its subject the 
antecedent of the subject of the declarative clause. 

Ex.— The boy who is riding that horse, is my brother. 
The boy riding that horse, is my brother. 
I saw the man as he rode by. 
I saw the man riding by. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. William tossed me an apple, and I ate it. 2. Sheri- 
dan met the fleeing army, and the retreat was changed to 
an assault and decisive victory. 3. That John had been 
sick surprised me. 4. I had heard that James had bought 
it. 5. We were not sure that it was John. 6. Do you know 
the man that is riding in that carriage? 7. Henry drew 
a picture of a house which was standing on a high hill. 

246. A declarative clause may sometimes be 
changed to an indifferent clause by changing the 
subject from the nominative to the object form when 
the subject is susceptible of such change, and drop- 
ping the connective "that" or substituting "for" in 



Change of Structure. 125 

its stead, and changing the predicate from the de- 
clarative to the indifferent. 

Ex.— I wish that he would go. — I wish him to go. It is 
impossible that a man should fly.— It is impossible for a 
man to fly. I ordered that they shoidd be released.— I 
ordered them to be released. 

247. A declarative clause may sometimes be 
changed by dropping the connective and the sub- 
ject, changing the predicate from the declarative to 
the indifferent and incorporating it as a member of 
a compound predicate. 

Ex.— The boy studies that he may learn.— The boy 
studies to learn. We desired that we shoidd see them.— 
We desired to see them. 

248. A declarative clause is frequently changed 
to an indifferent one, by dropping the connective 
and the subject, and changing the predicate from 
the declarative to the indifferent which assumes as 
its subject the antecedent of the subject of the de- 
clarative clause. 

Ex.— We told the boy that he should bring flowers. — 
We told the boy to bring flowers. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

NOTE.— Reduce the indifferent clauses and members of 
compound predicates to declarative clauses. 

1. For a man to deceive his friend is wrong. 2. It is 
cowardice for one to shun necessary danger. 3. The court 
ordered the prisoners to be released. 4. We were very 
anxious to assist him. 5. We requested him to be silent. 
6. We naturally desire evil to be removed. 7. John 
thought it was wrong for him to take the money. 8. I 
knew that it was not prudent for me to go. 9. A man to 
be respected, must be honorable. 10. John desired to be 



126 Change of Structure— Ellipsis. 

a lawyer. 11. We spoke to him to bring us some wood. 
12. He is old enough to go to school. 13. It is intended 
to be a book to be used in school. 

ELLIPSIS. 

248 a. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more 
elements of an expression. The element omitted is 
said to be understood, and if required in the analy- 
sis of the expression, it must be supplied. 

248 h. In a simple sentence the elements that 
may be omitted are: — 

1. The Subject. 

Ex.— Go.= Go thou &c. or Do thou &c. go. 

2. The Predicate, or a part of it. 
Ex.— Who will go? I, or I will.=I will go. 

3. The Predicate Complement. 

1. The Attribute. 

Ex.— The hat is William's [hat]. 

2. The Object. 

Ex.— I have Ann's [book]. 

4. Prepositions and conjunctions. 
Ex.— Give [to] me some water. 

We know [that] we must die. 

5. All or nearly all except the most important 
part. 

Ex.— Whose hat is that? Mine=It is mine. 

249. A compound sentence may be reduced by 
ellipsis to a simple sentence, — 

1. By uniting the predicates, and using the subject but 
once, when it is common to all the members. 

Ex. — Mary sang and she danced.=Mary sang and 
danced. 



Change of Structure— Abridgment. 12? 

2. By uniting the subjects and 'using the predicate but 
once when it is common to all the members. 

Ex.— Mary sang and William sang.=Mary and Wil- 
liam sang. 

ABRIDGMENT. 

250. Abridgment is the reduction of a declara- 
tive clause to an assumptive or an indifferent clause, 
or to a phrase or to a word. 

Bemarh.— It has been seen, under the caption " Change 
of Structure," how declarative clauses may be changed to 
assumptive and indifferent expressions, and what effect 
such change has on the structure of the general expres- 
sion. The further reduction to a phrase or to a word may 
also further change the construction of the abridged 
clause. 

Ex.— Our friends who live in the country, were here.— 
Our friends living in the country, were here. — Our friends 
in the country, were here. — A man, who were less diligent, 
would fail. — A man, being less diligent, would fail.— A 
man, less diligent, would fail. 

NOTE.— Declarative clauses frequently, by the omission of 
the subject and a part of the predicate, have the form of as- 
sumptive clauses, which, before they can be analyzed or dia- 
gramed correctly, must have the omitted parts restored. 

Ex.— While standing on the hillside, his foot slipped. 

Here it is plain that the subject of "standing" is not 
expressed in the sentence. If the ellipsis be restored, the 
sentence will be, u While he was standing &c." This serves 
to show the difference between ellipsis proper and abridg- 
nxent. 

SUBSTITUTION. 

251. Substitution is the exchange of one ex- 
pression for another having the same, or nearly the 
same, meaning and construction. 

Ex. — He is a man who should be pitied. =He is & pitiable 
man. 

He should be praised. =Ile is praise-worthy. 

The writ is to be returned.=The writ is returnable. 



128 Syntax ot the Parts of Speech. 



Past III 



Syntax of the Parts of Speech. 

BemarTc. — In the preceding pages expressions of 
thought have been separated into the elements composing 
them, and those elements have been treated without any- 
special reference to their etymology. It is now to be seen 
what relation Etymology sustains to Syntax. 

Syntax of Nouns. 

252. A Noun in its Nominative form, whether 
singular or plural in number, may be used as, — 

1. The Subject of a declarative or imperative 
sentence or clause. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. John | reads. Buin [ seize/thee! 



3. Horses are useful. 4. The birds sing quite joy- 
fully. 5. The boy came quickly. 6. The children obey 
cheerfully. 7. Heaven be merciful to them! 8. Miss 
Susie Smith sings sweetly. 

2. Absolute subject of an attendant assump- 
tive clause. 

TEST EXAMPLES, 

1. James | having called/me, I hastened. 

2. Father having written to me, I answered. 3. The 
order having been given, the men proceeded. 4. Our task 
being easy, we soon accomplished it. 5. Their duty being 
plain, they performed it. 



Syntax of Nouns. 



129 



3. Absolute subject of an indifferent clause 
introduced by "for," or used as object or preposi- 
tional complement. 



TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. For man | to steal, 



a| / 


\ | is \criminal. 


2. bridge | to be burned 


the 1 
He | ordered/ / 


\ 



They | prayed 
for 



3. war | to close 



the 



NOTE.— When "for" is introductory to an indifferent 
clause, it is exchanged for ''that" -when the clause is converted 
to a declarative clause. But when "for" is a preposition hav- 
ing the indifferent clause as its complement, it is either re- 
tained or understood before the declarative clause to which 
the indifferent clause may be converted. 

4. For a man to injure his friend, is baseness. 5. The 
command was for the army to begin the march. 6. We 
expected the jury to acquit him. 7. We had hoped for our 
friends to come. 8. We looked for the men to appear 
there. 9. They demanded the prisoner to be executed. 
10. It is profitable for men to know their faults. 

4. Attribute complement in any kind of a 
sentence or clause. 



130 Syntax of Nouns. 



TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. He 1 is\boy. 2. x | Be\men. 

a 1 
3. x | To be\men.— 4. x | Being\children.- 



2. 


x | See/birds. 


x 


the 1 
| To know/faults—. 




our 1 



5. He was, at one time, an honorable man. 6. To be- 
come a lawyer, requires much study. 7. His being an 
orator, secured his election. 8. His ambition was, to be 
a king. 9. Be a good boy, John. 

5. Object complement in any kind of a sen- 
tence or clause. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. We I saw/ William. 



3. x J Writing/letters. —. 4. 



5. He studied astronomy, rhetoric, and geometry. 6. 
Shut the door, John. 7. Catching wild horses is his oc- 
cupation. 8. To read good books may be profitable. 9. 
His having bought the horse was proved. 10. It was 
wrong for him to take money. 

6. Objective attribute in any kind of a sen- 
tence, or clause. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. They | made/Edward\king. 

2. x 1 Crown/him\Lord 

3. x | Making/man\hero— . 

a J a 1 

4. x | To elect/Mr. Jones\chairman— . 



Syntax of Nouns. 131 

5. Congress appointed George Washington com- 
mander-in-chief of the armies. 6. By appointing him 
chairman, you did him honor. 7. Having chosen John 
secretary, I trusted him. 8. We acknowledge ourselves 
sinners. 9. The pagan makes an idol his god. 10. It is 
wrong to make a man a hero. 11. By your votes, choose 
him president. 

7. A prepositional complement. 

TEST EXAMPLES 

1. Wal read 



about 



men. 



2. We went with father from Boston to Dover. 3. 
The lightning flashed in the clouds. 4. Our friends have 
returned from the city. 5. They went through the house 
into the yard. 

8. An appositive modifier. 





TEST EXAMPLES. 






1. lawyer 






the 1 




1. 


Mr. Jones (/ 


\) | spoke 1. physician. 








the 1 






to 


Mr. Clark (/ 


\) 



2. Mr. Bayard the statesman is popular. 3. My aunt 
Mrs. Compton visited her son Joseph. 4. The poet lau- 
reate Mr. Tennyson wrote the poem "Enoch Arden." 

Bemark— An appositive modifier is often introduced 
by "of" used as a euphonic word; as, "the city of Boston," 
meaning "the city Boston." 

.5. He lives in the state of Ohio. 6. The county of 



132 Syntax of Nouns. 

Fountain, in the state of Indiana, contains large quanti- 
ties of coal. 7. New York city stands on Manhattan 
Island, opposite the city of Brooklyn. 

Bemarlc 2.— Such expressions as "city of Boston" and 
1 'Boston city" may, also, be considered complex nouns, 
and analyzed as one expression or term. 

9. An ordinary modifier denoting the ma- 
terial, purpose, or kind of a thing. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. William | has/pen. 



1. gold 



2. William bought a silver pitcher. 3. John bought 
a coal bucket, a fire shovel, a water pail, a milk pan, a 
beer glass, a wash bowl, and a tooth brush at the country 
store. 4. A steel pen will not last so long as a gold pen. 

10. An attendant element, 

1. By direct address; as, John, come here. 2. By 
mere exclamation; as, Love! his affections do not that 
way tend. 3. By pleonasm; as, Absalom, David wept 
for him. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. Thomas, where did you get those peaches? 2. 
Beauty, she has but little beauty. 3. Kindness! Your 
whole course has been one of the most offensive oppres- 
sion. 4. How big was Alexander, pa? 5. O, Jerusalem, 
thou that stonest the prophets. 

11. Ordinary modifier instead of the pOS- 
sessive form when its possessive sign is joined to 
its appositive or phrase modifier, or to the last of 
two or more joint modifiers. 



Syntax of Nouns. 



133 



TEST EXAMPLES. 

Conqueror's 



1. 



the 1 
William (/j\) 



castle | burned. 



horse I died. 



captain 



The 



of 



regiment's 



the 



reign [ was\short. 



3. 



William 



and Mary 



,}- 



Notice that in all instances under this head the noun is 
entitled to the possessive sign, but that the sign is omitted 
or transferred to some other word for the sake of euphony. 

4. John bought his watch at Mr. Lemp the jeweler's 
store. 5. My brother William's horses have run away. 6. 
Wright and Sellers' office was thronged. 7. The meeting 
was held at Eeed and Hardy's bank. 8. Victoria the queen 
of England's assassination has been attempted five times. 
9. A great feast was given at the king of Babylon's 
palace. 

12. Complement of a predicate or of a prep- 
osition, and, at the same time, assumed subject 
of an assumptive or an indifferent clause. 



134 Syntax of Nouns. 



I | gave / letter | 


written 




J 

James | to tz 


by 


Anna 


to 


ike/ x 




to 


office 


the] 





TEST EXAMPLES. 

2. He is a man honored by all. 3. I am acquainted 
with the man riding that horse. 4. That is a book given 
to me years ago. 5. We asked the waiter to bring some 
water. 6. He told John to take the horses home. 7. We 
saw the boy throwing stones at the birds. 8. The house 
belongs to the man occupying it. 9. They consulted con- 
cerning the means to be used. 

13. Detached, or elliptical expressions. 

1. In titles of books, essays, &c; as, Indiana Keports, 
American Law Digest, The Voyage, The Village Smith. 
2. In signs (business, professional, &c); as, J. B. Martin, 
Attorney. 3. Labels, inscriptions, &c; Poison (on the 
wrapper). The Deluge (lettered on a vessel). 4. Super- 
scriptions, signatures, &c; as, George Smith, Dover, Mo. 
(on envelope): Yours truly, A. Lincoln. 

POSSESSIVE FORM. 

253. A Noun in the Possessive form, whether 
singular or plural in number, may be used as, — 

1. An ordinary modifier of another ex- 
pression denoting a different person or thing, to in- 
dicate ownership, authorship, agency, or kind. 

Bemark— The sign is added to each of two or more 
nouns thus used as separate modifiers, but to the last only 
of joint modifiers of the same expression. 



Syntax of Nouns. 135 

NOTE.— Separate modifiers modify like things, and the 
modified term may, frequently, be omitted after each modi- 
fier but the last, and then, if the terms are joined by "and," it 
may generally have thelplural number, though each modifier 
relates to a single thing ; while joint modifiers relate to the 
same thing or things. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

mother | layXsick. 



wife's 



1. Peter's 



2. Wright and Sellers' office was thronged. 
NOTE. -See diagram 3, page 133. 

3. John's hat and Mary's bonnet are new. 4. He sells 
mens' and boys' clothing. 5. Lee's surrender closed the 
war. 6. Wells's and Steele's Philosophies are school 
books. 7. He deposited his money at Gish and Nebeker's 
new bank. 

2. Appositive modifier of an ordinary 
modifier denoting ownership, authorship, agency, or 
kind. 

Bemark 1.— When the term limited by the ordinary 
modifier is not expressed, either the appositive or the 
ordinary modifier, but not both, may, usually, have the 
possessive sign. But when the term limited by the ordi- 
nary modifier is expressed, the sign is usually added to the 
last word preceding it. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

NOTE.— See diagram 1, page 133. 

2. That is my brother William's house. 3. Mr. Jones, 
the lawyer's office is new. 4. That is Mr. Gish, the bank- 
er's residence. 5. This was Daniel Webster, the distin- 
guished American statesman and lawyer's creed. 

3. Absolute Subject of an assumptive clause 
not used as an attendant element. 



136 Syntax of Nouns. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. John's 1 producing/money 



the 1 
surprised/us. 



2. We forbade the boy's taking our books. 3. He 
spoke of his brother's having been here. 4. What sur- 
prised rne was Mary's returning so soon. 5. Annie's be- 
ing a fine musician makes her popular. 

4. A prepositional complement. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. picture | was given 



A of father's to me 



Bemark. — "Of" is the only preposition that takes the 
possessive for its complement. In this use of the posses- 
sive there is no ellipsis of the limited term. We should 
not say ;t a picture of father's pictures," for he may have 
but the one. But if such an expression were used, would 
it mean, one of a number of pictures belonging to father, 
a reprint of one or more pictures belonging to him, or a 
picture, a likeness of him? 

2. A friend of my brother's came yesterday. 3. That 
hat of Jane's is beautiful. 4. That house of Mr. Jones's 
was built long ago. 5. That speech of Webster's was 
masterly. 

GENERAL TEST EXAMPLES. 

Diagram and analyze the following, and parse 

all the nouns. 

1. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 2. Shame 
being lost, all virtue is lost. 3. It is a disgrace for a man 
to become drunk. 4. The general ordered the army to 



Syntax of Nouns. 137 

proceed. 5. The merchant desires his business to increase. 
6. The lady ordered her carriage to be brought. 7. We 
asked nothing except for our mother to be well provided 
with the means of happiness. 8. Truth is the daughter of 
time. 9. To be a thorough scholar requires diligent 
study. 10. The offender being a child, the offence was 
condoned. 11. John went to town to buy provisions. 12. 
The czar chose his son to succeed him. 13. To consider a 
man a hero,isavors of idolatry. 14. Shakespeare, the 
prince of dramatists, wrote the play "Hamlet, Prince of 
Denmark." 15. William Penn the philanthropist and 
statesman, founded Philadelphia. 16. The market woman 
sold a dozen eggs. 17. John writes with a steel pen. 18. 
The lady wore a diamond pin and gold bracelets. 19. 
Peace, peace! Mercutio, peace! Thou talk'st of nothing. 
20. Shylock, but few are so merciless as Shylock. 21. My 
friend Mr. Jones's mother is sick. 22. The Governor of 
Indiana's message to the legislature was published in The 
Sentinel. 23. John's, James's, and Oliver's homes are far 
away. 24. He was the man to frighten the mob into sub- 
mission. 25. Tell your brother to bring my book home. 
26. They elected James captain to lead them. 27. Wash- 
ington was a man honored by his countrymen. 28. Did 
you come in the carriage standing by the gate? 29. We 
sent for uncle Toby to assist us. 30. Gray hairs are 
death's blossoms. 31. Will you attend your friend's wed- 
ding? 32. Pitt had the king's, as well as the people's, con- 
iidence. 33. Are you studying Ray's Arithmetic? 34. 
The merchant has men's furnishing goods for sale. 35. 
Cornwallis's surrender was at Yorktown. 36. William 
and Mary's home is beautiful. 37. The government's en- 
gaging in the war arrayed many a father against his son. 

38. An opportunity for John's testing his valor had come. 

39. The atmosphere's being clear permitted the observer 
to see small objects at great distances. 40. The atmos- 
phere being clear, I saw the eclipse. 41. These are 
Cicero's orations, the most eloquent of men. 42. Who dis- 
covered America? Answer.— Christopher Columbus. 



138 Syntax of Pronouns. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. Pitt had the king and the people's confidence. 2. 
James's mother gave Lucy's sister a pair of shoes. 3. 
Father's having returned, I was allowed to go. 4. Mary's, 
queen of Scotland, reign was full of trouble. 5. The man's 
statement was not believed. 6. We did not know of John 
being sick. 7. Mr. Smith, and Mr. Jones's mothers are 
old. 8. I was at Dickey's the bookseller's store. 9. It 
was Young, not Wood's horse. 10. Moore and Byron's 
poems are greatly admired. 11. Scott and Abbotts biog- 
raphies of Napoleon differ. 12. John's having finished 
the letter, I mailed it. 13. No one doubts the speaker 
being a scholar. 14. Cyrus Field crossing the Atlantic 
fifty times for aid to lay the cable, is like Columbus im- 
portuning the governments of Europe eight years for aid 
to discover America. 

Syntax of Pronouns. 

GENDER, PERSON, AND NUMBER. 

254. Pronouns capable of denoting gender, per- 
son, and number, or either of them, must be so 
used as to agree with their antecedents in these 
properties. 

GENERAL REMARKS,— GENDER. 

1. All the pronouns representing the same 
thing must have the same gender. 

NOTE.— Only personal and possessive pronouns having 
the third person and singular number can denote gender. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. The monkey tries to imitate his master, and it is 
successful in her attempt. 2. The wolf, when he saw the 
gate close behind it, slunk away. 3. In spring the earth 
clothes itself in green, and bedecks herself with flowers. 



Syntax of Pronouns. 139 

4. Death sets its mark upon his victim. 5. Majestic 
Ocean! how the storm set her raging before the calm 
lulled it to repose! 

PERSON. 

, 2. When pronouns having different persons 
are used in the same relation, the second person 
should precede the third, and the first person should 
be last. But when the speaker confesses a fault, 
the first person should ^precede the second, and the 
second, the third. 

Ex.— You and he and I are friends. 
I and you and he did wrong. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. He and I and you were playmates. 2. I and she and 
they have ever been friends. 3. John invited me and her 
and you to the party. 4. It is neither mine nor yours, nor 
hers. 5. It was your fault, or his, or mine. 6. It belongs 
to him, or me, or you. 7. Which hat is the prettiest, 
mine, or yours, or hersV 3. It was no disgrace to either 
me, or him, or you. 

NUMBER. 

3. Two or more singular antecedents joined 
by "and" are represented by a plural pronoun. 

Ex.— James and John study their lessons. 

4. But when singular antecedents are limited 
by each, every, or nor. the pronoun agrees with 
them separately. 

Ex. — Every tree, and shrub, and plant has its season. 

5. When the singular antecedents joined by 



140 Syntax of Pronouns. 

"and" are but different names of the same person 
or thing, the pronoun must be singular. 

Ex.— My old friend and school-mate invited us to visit 
him soon. 

6. When two or more things are taken as a 
whole the pronoun must be singular. 

Ex.— Mush and milk is healthful and we like it. 

7. When the antecedents are emphatically 

distinguished, the pronoun agrees w r ith the first. 

Ex.— The teacher, as well as the pupils, did his duty. 
The pupils, as well as the teacher, did their duty. 

8. But when the antecedents are referred to 

conjointly, the pronoun must be plural. 

Ex.— John, as well as James, told their grievances to 
their father. Not only Jane but Fannie also told their 
mother what they saw. 

9. When the antecedents have different gen- 
ders, each may be represented by its appropriate 
pronoun, or all of them by a plural pronoun. 

Ex.— John recited his lesson, and Mary, hers. 
John and Mary recited their lessons. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Justify or correct the number of the pronouns in 
the following. 

1. What father or mother does not love their children? 
2. No boy or girl should refuse to obey their parents. 3. 
A brother or a sister should consider their words before 
they utter them. 4. Both my sister and my cousin are 
kind to our mother. 5. There is not a lawyer, a doctor, a 
minister, or an infidel without their enemies and their 
friends. 6. Each valley, mountain, and plain has their 
peculiar vegetation. 7. Each man, woman, and child saw 



Syntax of Pronouns. 141 

their danger. 8. A poor man, as well as a rich man has 
his pleasures. 9. The minster as well as his friends, en- 
joyed himself. 

CONSTRUCTION.— NOMINATIVE FORM, 

255. I, we, thou, you, ye, he, she, it, they, and 
who are nominative forms, and must be used as, — - 

1. Subject of a sentence or clause having a 
declarative or imperative predicate. 

NOTE.— I, he, she, it, they, and who, are seldom, if ever 
used with imperative predicates ; and thou, you, ye, are ofbener 
omitted than expressed with imperatives, which they follow 
when expressed. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1 1 have come. 2. Tho u | hast been\faithful. 

3. We went to town to consult a lawyer. 4. You have 
seen trouble. 5. Ye were very highly esteemed. 6. He 
has ever been honest. 7. She was kind to the afflicted. 8. 
It greatly pleased the audience. 9. They might have come 
to help us. 10. Who would believe the man? 11. Come 
(thou, you, or ye) to the festal board. 12. Blow ye winds . 
of early spring. 13. Turn we from such a scene. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. Me and him are friends. 2. Her and them went to 
church together. 3. Thee and her must visit us soon. 4. 
Them are my books, but thee can have them. 5. You and 
him look alike. 6. I shall not tell whom went with me. 

2. Subject of an attendant assumptive 

clause. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. He | having spoken, multitude | dispersed. 

the 



142 Syntax of Pronouns. 

2. She being lost, we showed her the way. 3. I turn- 
ing my head, the ball hit my cheek. 4. They having come 
near us, we saw them. 5. We must part here, thou going 
forward, and I returning to my home. 7. It being dis- 
covered, we were disturbed no more. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. My being an officer, they dispersed. 2. Her hav- 
ing come, we were soon at supper. 3. Their having con- 
gregated for a worthy purpose, the officers protected them 
from the mob. 4. Your having come so soon, we were 
not prepared to see you. 5. Whom having been elected, 
they greeted him. 6. His being a scholar, they trusted 
him. 

3. Attribute complement of any kind of a 
predicate. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. It 1 is\I. 2. It 1 is\he. 3. It | is\they. 

4. The boys thought it was I, but it was he. 5. It 
was known to be they. 6. It being thou, we shall retire. 
7. It could not have been she, for it was he. 8. It not be- 
ing thou, who was it? 9. It was who? 

CORRECT THE ERRORS, 

1. It was me not, him, nor her. 2. It might have 
been them, but not thee. 3. It could have been whom? 4. 
Whom do you think I am? 5. He took it to be me. 6. 
They took him to be her. 7. Who would have thought 
that it was them? 8. I would not like to be him, If I 
could be. 9. We did not think of its being her. 

Bemark— Usage is not entirely uniform; many good 
writers use the object form of pronouns as attribute com- 
plements of indifferent predicates, but as there is no good 
reason for such usage, it should not be encouraged. 

POSSESSIVE FORM. 

256. My, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their and 



Syntax of Pronouns. 143 

whose are possessive forms, and must be used, — 

1. As ordinary modifiers denoting owner- 
ship, authorship, agency or kind. 

TEST EXAMPLES, 

1. book | is\new. 2. house | is\old. 

My 1 Their 

3. O, Lord, how excellent is thy name. 4. His father 
bought a farm in Indiana. 5. Mary asked her mother for 
a new hat. 6. Whose house is that in which your brother 
lives? 7. The author revised his book. 8. A meteor 
whose brilliancy was marvelous, was seen. 

2. As absolute subject of assumptive 
clauses not used as attendant elements. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. My | being\old 



secured/confidence. 



their 



2. What caused our uneasiness was your being absent 
so long. 3. Our having succeeded greatly pleased our 
friends. 4. His being appointed to the office makes him 
grateful. 5. Her being a scholar made her welcome. 6. 
We forbade their being destroyed. 7. We have been 
anxious for its being recognized. 8. I had no intimation 
of your having returned. 9. We have just seen the man 
of whose harboring thieves so much has been said lately. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. I did not think of him going to-day. 2. They heard 
of us intending to pursue them. 3. We heard of thee being 
elected. 4. We were surprised at him commanding us to 
go. 9. We knew of them trying to avoid detection. 



144 Syntax of Pronouns. 

Bemark—My is sometimes used in elliptical exclama- 
tions expressive of pleasant emotions. 
Ex.— Oh! my! is'nt it beautiful? 

OBJECT FORMS. 

257. Me, ns, thee, you, him, her, it, them, and 
whom are object forms, and must be used, — 

1. As object complements of transitive 
predicates of any kind. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. John | saw/you. 2. 1 1 saw/him. 

3. John invited you and her and me to the ball. 4. 
We have some nice apples, but we intend to sell them. 5. 
Whom did you meet as you came to see us? 6. The boy 
picked up a stone and, throwing it, hit me. 7. We in- 
formed them of who told us. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. Did she choose thou, or he, or I? 2. Have you seen 
John and I together? 3. Who should I meet but she? 4. 
We have invited he and she and they. 5. Eeprove he that 
is insolent. 6. We choose ye as our friends. 7. They 
that are worthy I shall reward. 8. They came to see you 
and I. 

2. As prepositional complements. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. John | went 

with me. 



2. Did you speak to him, or to her? 3. Between him 
and me there is no dispute. 4. With whom were you talk- 
ing? 5. I said nothing about thee or them. 6. They spoke 
falsely concerning us. 7. There are many good people 
among them. 8. Her mother came with her. 



Syntax of Pronouns. 145 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. Who did you go with? 2. Between she and I the 
difference is great. 3. William wrote to thou and she last 
week. 4. Let no trouble arise between thou and he. 5. 
Among ye are many false teachers. 6. He sent his com- 
pliments to we and they. 

3. As absolute subjects of indifferent clauses 
introduced by the connective "for," or used as ob- 
ject complements. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. We | were\anxious him | to come. 



for 



(for) 



2. It is profitable for us to know our faults. 3. For 
him to bring the books is impossible. 4. We desire her 
to study music. 5. He permitted me to assist the men. 6. 
The judge ordered us to be liberated. 7. I thought it to 
be John. 8. We took them to be strangers to our customs. 

4. As object or prepositional comple- 
ments and assumed subjects of assumptive or 
indifferent clauses. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1 1 saw/him | running 



across 



fields. 



the 1 

1 1 saw/her | (to) strike/child, 
the I 

Bemark.— When an expression performs the double 
office of complement and assumed subjects, it alone may 



146 Syntax of Pronouns. 

be considered the primary complement, and the clause in- 
cluding it as assumed subject may be considered a second- 
ary or extended complement. Then, in the above, u him" 
is the primary object, and "him running across the fields" 
is the secondary or extended object of "saw." 

The difference between the absolute and the assumed 
subject may be seen by expanding the first of the above 
sentences as sollows: 

"I saw him, and or that, he was running etc.," or, U I 
saw that he was running etc." If the sentence in the 
diagram means the same as the first of the expanded sen- 
tences, and it certainly does, then "him" is the primary 
object of "saw" and the assumed subject of "running;" 
but if it means the same as the second expanded sentence, 
but it does not, then "him" is the absolute subject of "run- 
ning" and the assumptive clause is the primary object of 
"saw," and in the diagram should stand on its own base 
resting upon a support standing upon the extended base 
of "saw." 

3. They elected him to teach them to read. 4. We 
sent her to school to study music. 5. I have just seen the 
minister whom the last conference sent to preach to us 
this year. 6. Do you know them riding in the carriage? 
7. We spoke to him standing by the horse. 9. They sent 
for me to go home. 

Bemarh l.—Me is used in exclamations expressive of 
strong feeling, sadness, or disappointment: as, O me! ah, 
me! poor me! 

Bemarh 2. — When "who" or any of its derivations is 
used to represent two antecedents not used as a compound 
element, the nominative form must be used if either of the 
antecedents, were it a personal pronoun, would have the 
nominative form; otherwise the object form "whom" or 
its compounds should be used. 

Ex. 1.— Invite whoever will come. Here "whoever" 
though object complement of "invite," is subject of the 
declarative "will come," hence the nominative form is 
used. 



Syntax of Pronouns. 147 

2. Invite whomever you meet. Here " whomever" is 
object complement of "invite" and of "meet," hence the 
object form is proper. 

Bemarlc 3. — Possessive pronouns which have only the 
possessive form, those conjunctive, interrogative, and cor- 
relative pronouns which have only the nominative forms, 
and the compound personal pronouns, may be used like 
the nominative and object forms of the simple personal 
pronouns. 

Ex.— That horse of yours is vicious; mine gentle, so is 
hers. A boy that will steal, will lie. William hurt him- 
self. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. The conjunctive pronoun is frequently 
omitted. 

Ex.— Is that the hat [which] you bought? 
Who bought the horse [that] you sold? 

2. That, as a conjunctive pronoun, is generally 
used instead of who, whom, or which, after a, all, 
every, same, and very, after adjectives in the super- 
lative degree; after who or whom used interroga- 
tively; and after two or more antecedents denoting 
different kinds of things. 

Ex. — All that live, must die. He was the wisest man 
that ever lived. Who that knows, dares not tell? The men 
and the horses that you desired are here. 

3. A conjunctive pronoun should be placed as 
near as possible to its antecedent when a different 
arrangement would cause ambiguity. 

Ex.— Correct.— A lady lost, in the street, a purse that 
had a silver clasp. 

Incorrect.— A lady lost a purse in the street that had a 
silver clasp. 



148 Syntax of Pronouns. 

4. The same antecedent should not be repre- 
sented by different pronouns of the same class, 
though different forms of the same pronoun may be 
used in the same sentence. 

Ex.— Correct,— John, thou hast taught many, and thy 
pupils bless thee. 

Incorrect.— John, your pupils bless thee. 

5. The correlative pronouns Either and Neither 
are often mere fragments of expressions precedent 
but suppressed that their appositives may receive 
greater attention. They may then be called atten- 
dants to their appositives. 

Ex. — Either I will bring it or send it— I promise that 
either I will bring it or send it. 

6. The negative term of the antecedent of 
Whether is generally abridged to "not*" and it is 
sometimes entirely omitted; and frequently the 
affirmative of another antecedent takes its place. 

The following diagrams will serve to show the use 
and the construction of the correlative pronouns. 

William 





i and 


7S. 


Both (/ 


1 \ James 
\) | are \ bo 




good 





Syntax of Pronouns. 



149 



He 



aimed 



x 



both 



to assist 



(\|/) 



and 



them 



to please 



William ( will come. 



Either (/ 



f; 



or 



James 



\) 



We | shall go. 



We 1 can tell /whether (/ 



or 
x 



\) 



not 



I I 



know / whether 



not 



to go 



or 



not 



not 



(\ 



/) 



NOTE.— Both, either, neither and whether are, by many 
grammarians, classed with conjunctions. 

7. Avoid using a pronoun so as to leave it 
difficult to determine which of two or more expres- 



150 Syntax of Pronouns. 

sions is its antecedent. Repeat the expression in- 
tended as its antecedent, rather, or quote the 
speaker's exact words; or recast the sentence. 

Ex.— John said that, when he introduced James to 
William, he told him that he was his friend. Query: Who 
told,' who was told,' and who was whose friend? 

James tried to see William in the crowd, but could 
not, because he was so short. 

8. Avoid needlessly using pronouns. 

Ex.— It is true what he said. The boy he laughed, the 
man he scolded, and the woman she cried. 

9. Avoid using the pronoun them for the ad- 
jective those, and, the pronoun ivhat for the conjunc- 
tion that. 

Ex.— Give me them marbles,. Did you see them fine 
peaches? We do not know but what we shall go. I can- 
not believe but what he is innocent. 

10. Avoid using that for who or which when 
not restrictive, and a personal pronoun preceded by 
and could be used instead of the conjunctive pro- 
noun. 

Ex.— The earth, that is a planet, revolves around the 
sun. Mr. Jones, that is one of the trustees, introduced us. 
Steamships, that are a modern invention, make quick 
voyages. 

TEST EXAMPLES 

1. Silver is mined in both Mexico and Peru. 2. Both 
to be rich and to be honest are his earnest desire. 3. Gold 
is both mined and minted in California. 4. Either John 
or James will read it to you. 5. I shall either send it or 
bring it. 6. He could not be influenced by either the en- 
treaties of his friends or the offer of money. 7. Neither 
Mavy nor Susan has come. 8. He possesses neither honor 



Syntax of Pronouns. 151 

nor valor. 9. The dog would neither eat the hay nor per- 
mit the ox to eat it. 10. The question was whether 
the tribe should be civilized or exterminated. 11. We 
could not decide whether to go or not. 12. Whether Lee 
should continue his invasion of Pennsylvania or Meade 
drive him out of that state was decided at Gettysburg. 13. 
Whether to continue to live or to commit suicide puzzled 
Hamlet. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors and tell why. 

1. Jane invited thou and I to visit her. 2. Her and 
me have long been friends. 3. Was it me who they saw 
yesterday?. 4. It was not us who they offended, but her. 
5. Mother told he and I that us two could go. 6. 1 had no in- 
timation of him going to-day. 7. We w T ere surprised at you 
writing so well. 8. We saw his running the horse. 9. 
Your coming so soon, we are surprised. 10. They suc- 
ceeding so well we had not hoped for. 11. Some silly 
people think theirselves better than any one else. 12. 
John hurt hisself and blamed I for it. 13. We thought it 
to be him, but it was not him. 14- John supposed thou to 
be I. 15. It could not have been them that did it. 16. 
Neither thee nor me saw nicer melons than them are. 17. 
Whom besides I do you suppose came? 18. I know the 
way as well as him or her do. 19. Whom do you suppose 
them to be? 20. I did not think of it being them. 21. Let 
ye and I be firm in the right. 22. They all came except he 
who we invited first. 23. It is not right for such as us to 
be proud. 24. Who is there? Me. 25. Is she as pretty as 
me? 26. Kindly receive whomsoever may come. 27. Be 
courteous to whoever you meet. 28. You should repent 
of thy misdeeds. 29. He is the very man that was here 
yesterday, and who interested us so greatly. 30. All that 
go down to the sea in ships, who do business on the great 
waters, see His wonders which he has made. 31. A cape 
was found in the street by a boy that was made of silk. 32. 
A man was run over by the cars last night that was drunk. 
33. She is the proudest woman who lives in this town. 



152 Syntax of Adjectives. 

Syntax of Adjectives. 
258. An adjective may be used as — 

1. An ordinary modifier of an expression 
denoting a thing or things. 

Bemark— It has been seen that the modified expres- 
sion may be a simple, a complex, or a compound basis. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

1. A large tree had fallen across the little creek. 2. Light, 
fleecy clouds floating in the morning wind. 3. Every good 
and perfect gift comes from God. 4. Night, sable goddess, 
from her ebon throne enshrouds a slumbering populace. 
5. This book is mine; that nice cape is yours. 6. No man 
has ever known all the physical universe. 7. A strong wind 
blew from the east. 8. The American people have many 
peculiar customs. 9. A concealed danger awaited the un- 
wary traveler. 10. The most gorgeous palaces do not se- 
cure the greatest happiness. 11. In which house do you 
live? 12. Fifty dollars is a large sum of money to a poor 
man. 

An Adjective may be used as — 

2. An attribute complement. 

TEST EXAMPLES. 

i 
l. 

2. 



3. This apple is sweet and lucious. 3. Father's house 
has become old and dilapitated. 5. My esteemed has 
become rich and influential. 6. Ripening wheat turns 
golden. 7. The conflict was long and sanguinary. 8. He 



He | is\old. 








2 

x | To be\contented, 


3 

x | to be\happy. 


/ 


\ 1 


is, \ / 


\ 



Syntax or Adjectives. 153 

who is most prudent, is wisest. 9. Sweet creature, you 
are witty, and you are wise. 10. Our people are prosper- 
ous, frugal, and contented. 

An adjective may be used as, — 

3. An assumed attribute. 

TEST EXERCISE. 



1 
1. She | is\lady\worthy. 


eem. 


a 1 of 


est 


2 

2. David | struck / Goliath \ dead. 


3 

x \diligent 


3. man | \ \ i eS s 




A 1 ( i would ha 


ve failed. 



4. He was a soldier anxious for distinction. 5. Napol- 
eon became a warrior illustrious for his daring deeds. 6. 
By practicing crime, he has rendered his feelings blunt and 
callous. 7. Our friends made us welcome. 8. A person 
more honest cannot be found. 9. Washington, a man il- 
lustrious for his patriotism, was chosen president. 10. 
We were assaulted by Jesse James, a man notorious for 
villainy. 11. Ophelia believed Hamlet insane. 

DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION. 

269. An Adjective may be used as both modify- 
ing and representing another expression at the same 
time; and when so used, it may be — 

1. The Subject. 

2. The Attribute, 



154 Syntax of Adjectives, 

3. The Object. 

4. A Prepositional Complement. 

5. An Appositive Modifier. 

6. An Attendant Element. 






Bemark 1.— When a descriptive adjective is thus used, 
it is generally preceded by "The;" as, The rich often op- 
press the poor. 

Bemark 2.— A pronominal adjective thus used is not 
usually preceded by ""The;" as, This is my house; that is 
yours. 

Bemark 3. — An article placed before a pronominal ad- 
jective serves to identify what is meant, or to strengthen 
antithesis; as, The one came; the other remained away. 

One said no; another said yes. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. The Subject. 

1. brave [ are\merciful. 



The 



2. The poor are too often oppressed. 3. The prudent 
think before they speak. 4. That is a gentle horse of 
John's. 5. Few shall part where many meet. 6. The few 
that escaped suffered great hardships. 7. Four of the 
nine men wore masks. 

2. The Attribute. 

1. These [ are\few. 



the 



2. They are the poor of our city. 3. It was these that 
I bought. 4. They who succeed best are the intelligent. 
5. This hat is one of several that he showed to me, and the 
one that I chose. 



Syntax of Adjectives. 155 

3. The Object. 

1. We | pity /unfortunate. 

the] 

2. We love the good and the merciful. 3. God blesses 
the poor in heart. 4. He will comfort the sorrowful. 5. 
James gave me two of his marbles. 6. I bought this at the 
store. 7. They protected the few that survived, 

4. Prepositional Complement* 

1. We | should be\kind 



to helpless. 



the 



2. Speak kindly to the the erring. 3. Have no com- 
munication with the wicked. 4. Urge no unjust meas- 
ures against the poor. 5. Forbearance toward the insolent 
is not a virtue. 6. We should not be envious of the fort- 
unate. 

5. Appositive Modifier. 

brave 



the 1 
1. They (/ 



\) | deserve/encouragement. 



2. She, the beautiful, is dead. 3. We will shield them, 
the weak, from harm. 4. Let us give thanks unto him, 
the Merciful. 5. We will praise him, the Omnipotent. 

6. Attendant Element. 

1. proud, they | shall be made\humble. 



The 



2. The meek, God will bless them. 3. The poor in heart, 
they shall see God. 4. The departed, we see them in our 



156 Syntax of Adjectives. 

dreams. 5. My beloved, be cheerful. 6. Our dead! where 
are they? 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. An adjective which is variable in form to denote 
number, should agree in this property with the sense in- 
tended. 

Ex,— This kind, not, these kind. 

2. In comparison of equality, the diminutive or the 
positive degree of the adjective preceded by As, So, Such 
is used before the first term of the comparison, and the 
second term is introduced by As. Inequality is also de- 
noted by using Not before the first term. 

Ex.— William is as tall as his father [is tall]. Jane is 
not so prudish as Mary [is prudish]. We like such public 
men as Washington. 

3. In comparison of inequality the first term requires 
the comparative degree of the adjective, and the second 
term preceded by than, the positive degree of the ad- 
jective. 

Ex.— John is taller than James [is tall]. Jane is good, 
but Mary is better [than she is good]. 

4. When adjectives of different comparisons relating 
to the same expression are used, all may have the com- 
pound comparison, and the sign more or less, most or least 
may be omitted before all but the first; as, I never heard 
a more eloquent, able, and popular speaker. 

NOTE.— Both comparisons should never be used with the 
same adjective at the same time. Say sweeter, or more sweet* 
not more sweeter; sweetest, or most sweet, not most 
sweetest. 

5. When ordinals are used with cardinals, the former 
should generally precede the latter; as, The first two 
books; the second four men. 

6. A definitive adjective should be repeated when its 
omission would occasion ambiguity or obscurity; as, 



Syntax of Adjectives. 157 

Jane has a red, a white, and a pink rose. That bay, that 
black, and that gray horse are John's. 

7. A few, and a little are opposed to none; few to many, 
and little to much. 

Ex. — A few came though few were invited. We saved 
a littte money, though it was but little we received. 

8. Adjectives should be so arranged as clearly to des- 
ignate the sense intended. 

Ex.— Ladies' kid gloves, not kid ladies' gloves. Men's 
fine boots, not fine men's boots. 

9. When this and that, these and those, the one and the 
other refer to expression previously used, this, these and the 
other refer to the last mentioned, and that, those, and the 
one refer to the first mentioned. 

Ex.— The good and the vicious are to be found in 
every community; this should be shunned, and that en- 
couraged. Copernicus and Ariosto were contemporaries; 
the one a German philosopher, the other an Italian poet. 

10. Choose such adjectives as indicate the idea in- 
tended; avoid such as repeat or exaggerate it, and do not 
use them needlessly. 

Correct the following. 

Ex.— It was a magnificent peach. 2. It was enjoyable 
fun. 3. It is a general and universal truth. 4. It was a 
tremendous dew. 

11. Avoid using an adjective as a modifier of only 
another adjective when the modified adjective does not 
have the double construction. 

CORRECT THE ERRORS. 

1. I am exceeding glad to see you. 2. Mother is toler- 
able well. 3. It was an extreme cold day. 4. The chasm 
was awful deep. 5. The sun shone terrible hot. 6. A 
tremendous heavy rain fell yesterday. 



158 Syntax of Verbs. 



GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors and tell why. 

1. I do not like those sort of people. 2. These molasses 
is very pretty. 3. John is only five feet high, and James 
is so tall as he is. 4. Willy is three years old, and Annie 
is not so old. 5. Mary and Jane are pretty, but Jane is 
the prettiest. 6. Susan is more handsomer than her sister. 
7. The younger of those three trees is thriftiest. 9. The 
serpent was the most cunning of all the other beasts. 10. 
Bring me the two first books that you buy. 11. Have you 
read the four last pages? 12. Did you see the white and 
black bears at the show? 13. There is a difference be- 
tween the red and white rose. 14. The lion, as well as 
tiger, is in its cage. 15. The right and left hand differ. 16. 
The east and west lines extend north and south. 17. The 
equator separates the northern and southern hemispheres. 
18. It rained so constantly yesterday that a few visitors 
came. 19. We saw a white and blue crane flying. 20. John 
bought a dried box of herrings. 21. Jane has less friends 
than Mary has. 22. John has the roundest ball I ever saw. 

Syntax of Verbs. 

260. Every verb, or verb-group is a predicate or 
predicative complement of its absolute or assumed 
subject expressed or implied. 

SUBJECT FORMS. 

BemarTc.— Let it be remembered that only declarative 
verbs have any Special Subject Forms, and that they can be 
used only alone, or as the first verb of a declarative verb- 
group, and it will be seen that Subject Forms can be ap- 
plied only to these verbs. 

261. I Am, Was, Were, Be. 

In general, when a personal pronoun of the first 
person singular number, not used as a mere word, 



Syntax of Verbs. 159 

is the subject or the antecedent of the subject, — 

1. Am is used in affirming and conceding a 
fact as unfinished at the time it is used; as, I am 
old if I am little. Do you blame me who am your 
friend? 

2. Was is used in affirming and conceding a 
fact as finished at the time of using it; as, I was not 
bad if I was there. Why did you impose upon me 
who was your friend ? 

3. Were is used to imply a denial of the 
present existence of a hypothetical completed fact; 
as. If I were old enough, I would vote. Were I 
rich 1 would be happy. 

4. Be is used to imply a denial of a hypotheti- 
cal unfinished fact; as, If I be guilty, why am I not 
arrested? 

NOTE.— Am and Be are also used to denote what may be 
a future fact; as, If I am, or be, here next week, I shall see it. 

FIRST SPECIAL. 

262. When thou is the subject or the antecedent 
of the subject, and not both doubt and futurity are 
implied by the Imperfect Tense of the verb or verb- 
group; or not both doubt and present time are im- 
plied by the Perfect Tense, the First Special Sub- 
ject Form must be used. 

Ex.— Thou who hast ever been my friend art still my 
chief delight. 

SECOND SPECIAL. 

263. When the subject is third person singular 
number and not both doubt and futurity are im- 



160 Syntax of Verbs. 

plied, the verb or verb-group must have the Second 
Special Subject Form. 

Ex. — John walks to school every day, but Mary rides 
on the street-car. If Mary rides, she surely arrives there 
earlier than John, if she starts when he starts. 

BemarTc 1.— Each of two or more singular subjects 
limited by each, every, or no must be considered separately, 
as the subject, though connected by and. 

Ex. — Each man, woman, and child is mortal. Every 
season, day, and hour brings joy to some and grief to 
others. No bribe and no threat influences him. 

Bemark 2.— When two or more singular subjects con- 
nected by and are but different names of the same thing; 
or when two or more things are thought of as a whole, the 
subject should be considered as singular. 

Ex.— My friend and school-mate is here. The hue and 
cry (noise) of the mob frightens us. 

Bemark 3. — When a word as such, & phrase or a clause 
is the subject, it should be considered as singular. 

Ex.— They is a pronoun. To go to Europe, has been my 
desire for a year. That John should have been here sur- 
prised me. 

GENERAL SUBJECT FORM. 

The General Subject Form of verbs and verb- 
groups should be used, — 

1. When a single subject indicates more than 
one thing; as, Men have rights. 

2. When two or more subjects denoting dif- 
ferent thing are taken conjointly; as, John and Wil- 
liam are brothers. 

3. When there is no Special Subject Form for 
one or more singular subjects taken separately; as, 
Each man, woman, and child can read. 



Syntax of Verbs. 161 

4. When both doubt and futurity are implied 
by the Imperfect Tense; and both doubt and pres- 
ent time by the Perfect Tense; as, If he go to the 
city he will find employment. If thou loved him 
as I do, thou couldst not speak so of him. 

Bemark. — Under the fourth specification, "Thou" takes 
wert instead of were; as, If thou wert honest thou wouldst 
pay me, for thou art rich. 

Bemark 2. — Aiie always requires a plural subject, or 
you used as its subject or the antecedent of its subject. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. A collective noun in the singular, is singular in 
thought when the collection as a whole is referred to; but, 
plural in thought when the individuals of the collection are 
referred to; as, The jury has found him guilty. The jury 
have not agreed upon a verdict. 

2. When two or more subjects are connected by ".or," 
or "nor," the verb agrees with that which stands nearest 
to it; as, Neither you nor he is satisfied. Neither he nor 
they are contented. John or I am blamable. 

NOTE.— The pronoun Either or Neither takes the person 
and number of the last term of its antecedent. 

3. When one of the subjects is affirmative, and the 
other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative; as, 
The teacher, not the pupils, is mad. The pupils, not the 
teaher, are blamable. 

4. When some of two or more subjects are distin- 
guished by "as well as," the verb agrees with that or those 
not so distinguished; as, He, as well as they, is here. 
They, as well as he, are here. As well as I, thou art here. 
He or she, as well as father and mother, has come. Father 
and mother, as well as he or she, have come. 

5. When two or more subjects connected by and fol- 
low the predicate, they may be made emphatic by making 
the verb agree with the first; as, There is William and 
John and James. 



162 Syntax of Verbs. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors and tell why. 

1. Young's Kight Thoughts are his most celebrated 
work. 2. Either you or I are right in this. 3. John, to- 
gether with his mother, are here. 4. The humblest lab- 
orer, as well as the wealthiest men, have certain rights. 
5. One or the other of you have wronged me. 6. Victuals 
are a common noun. 7. Politics are to be discussed at the 
meeting. 8. The committee have decided the question. 9. 
^Neither you nor he have done right. 10. Two month's 
rent are now due. 11. Not eloquences, but proofs estab- 
lishes a fact. 12. Every book and every paper are in its 
place. 13. The council is divided in their opinions. 14. 
John in company with Mary and Julia, have been visiting 
their friends in Boston. 15. William and his sister goes to 
school. 16. Books, and not pleasure, entices him to go. 
17. Therein consist the life and beauty and power of dec- 
lamation. 18. Mush and milk as a diet are good. 19. 
Three-fourths of my land are hilly. 20. One-third of these 
twelve boys is idle. 21. Three hours are a long time to the 
impatient. 22. John, Mary, and Susan were there. 23. 
If it rains to-morrow we cannot go. 24. If John comes in 
time next week, we shall go. 25. If I was rich I would 
help you. 26. If thou wast prudent no harm could hap- 
pen thee. 27. Wast thou more amiable, more would love 
thee. 28. If I am not detained to-morrow, I shall go to 
Boston. 29. If I was rich as thou are I would travel. 30. 
Was he as poor as I be, he would not be so proud as 
he be now. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

264. Active and neutral subjects require their 
predicates to have the Germanic, or the Progressive 
Conjugation; as, John reads. He is reading. She 
might have read. She might have been reading. 

265 Passive subjects require their declarative 
and imperative predicates, and usually their assump- 



Syntax of Verbs. 163 

tive and indifferent predicates, to have the Passive 
conjugation; as, James was elected by the people. 
Be advised by me. The boy being punished by his 
teacher deserves to be punished. 

Bemark 1. — The Perfect assumptive as predicate, 
though having the Germanic conjugation, always relates 
to a passive subject; as, Garfield, loved by many, honored 
by all, is dead. 

Bemark 2.— An indifferent predicate having the Ger- 
manic conjugation may sometimes be considered as used 
instead of the Passive conjugation having an assumed 
passive subject; or it maybe considered as a prepositional 
complement and a part of a compound predicate whose 
object would be its subject if it had the Passive con- 
jugation. 

Ex.— Here is food to eat. I have matches to sell. 

_ * s 
food I 



1 Here 
to eat (to be eaten.) 



I | have/matches | to sell, (to be sold.) 



or, 



M 



have 

x 1 | /matches 



to sell. 



Bemark 3.— It often seems difficult to determine 
whether a word having the form of the perfect assumptive 
verb is the verb complement of a passive conjugation, or 
a verbal adjective used as the attribute complement. In 
general, in such instances, if a prepositional phrase con- 
sisting of "by" and its complement denoting the agent, is 
required by the sense; or if, when the conjugation is 
changed to the Germanic, the passive subject of the verb- 
group, becomes the object of the complementary word, 



164 Syntax of Verbs . 

such word is a verb-complement; otherwise it is attribute 
complement. 

Ex. — "He is contented." Here the prepositional 
phrase is inadmissible, hence contentedis a verbal adjective 
used as the attribute complement, and not the perfect as- 
sumptive used as verb-complement. 

"He is loved." Here the prepositional phrase is not 
only admissible but implied, hence loved is a verb-comple- 
ment, and is loved, the passive conjugation. 

4. Choose verbs that state the idea intended. 

(Correct the following.) 

1. I expect he is rich. 2. The sun was setting. 3. Set 
down on the chair. 4. He sat the basket on the table. 5. 
I suspect the house is new.' 6. I laid down on the ground. 
7. He lays on the bed sick. 8. He raised up and looked 
around. 9. He lay the stick on the bench. 10. The teacher 
learned me to write. 11. Jane loves candy. 12. Mother 
enjoys very poor health. 13. The doctor hopes to effect 
a cure. 

5. Avoid using to alone for the indifferent verb or 
verb-group. 

Ex.— I have not written to him, and I do not intend to. 
He promised to pay me, and he ought to. I did not go, 
because I did not want to. Strike, if you dare to. 

6. Avoid improperly using the passive conjugation 
for the Germanic. 

Ex. — The evening was come when we were arrived at 
home, and the family were retired to their rest. The hour 
for this trial is arrived. 

7. Avoid inelegantly using assumptive verbs for in- 
different verbs. 

Ex.— He neglected learning his lesson. They failed 
keeping their promise. No one likes being imprisoned. 
Going to church is no evidence of goodness. 



Syntax of Verbs. 165 

TENSE. 

266. Care should be taken to use that tense of a 
verb, or verb-group, which will most clearly indicate 
the relations, as to time and condition, of the facts 
predicated. 

REMARKS. 

1. The imperfect tense of the declarative verb 
is used to express, — 

1. What is actually taking place; as, I see a bird. We 
know the sun moves. 

2. What frequently or habitually takes place; as, John 
walks to school every morning. 

3. What is to take place, (used instead of shall or will 
in the can-group); as, James starts to Boston next week. 

4. What is conceived as taking place, whether it has 
already taken place, is to take place, or is merely hypo- 
thetical; as Pocahontas rushes forward, throws herself be- 
tween the executioner and the prisoner, and implores the 
king to save his life. The day of judgment has come; the 
great trumpet sounds; the dead arise and walk; the wicked 
wail and gnash their teeth, and the redeemed sing and 
praise the Lord. 

5. What is true at all times; as, He said that the 
earth is a sphere; that it rotates on its axis, and that it re- 
volves around the sun. 

2. The perfect tense of the declarative verb is 
used to express, — 

1 . What was actually completed in past time; as, John 
walked to town yesterday. 

2. What is conceived as completed and so still exist- 
ing; as, If he were rich he would pay you. If he loved you 
now he would not treat you so. 



166 Syntax of Verbs. 

3. The imperfect assumptive is used, — 

1. To express an assumed fact as progressing at the 
time referred to; as, The boy running, stumbled. 

2. As verb-complement in the Progressive conjuga- 
tion; as, I am writing. 

4. The perfect assumptive is used, — 

1. To express an assumed fact as completed, and as 
completed still existing at the time referred to; as, Mr. 
Jones, honored and esteemed by many, is sick. 

2. As verb-complement of have in any of its forms, 
and, in the passive conjugation; as, have seen, had seen; 
am seen, to be seen, might have been seen. 

5. The uses of the imperfect and the perfect tenses of 
the verb-groups are too various to be given in this work. 
Their applicability can best be determined by attending to 
the sense intended to be expressed. 

6. Avoid using the indifferent Have-Group in the 
double constructions of the indifferent clause. 

Ex.— I expected to have seen you. He hoped to have 
won the highest honors. She intended to have written to 
me. John had been expected to have written tp us. They 
promised to have visited the city. 

7. Avoid improper contractions; as, iVs for it is, aint 
for is not, haint for have not, Haint for it is not, etc. 

Ex.— It's very nice. I aint going. 'Taint any use to 
try. John haint any more marbles. He aint a good boy. 

8. Avoid using of for have in verb-groups. 

Ex.— -He might of written to me. If he had of come, 
I would of gone with him. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors. 

1. I see the man yesterday. 2. I have heard Mr. 
Beecher preach last summer. 3. The teacher says that the 



Syntax of Prepositions. 167 

air is elastic. 4. He said that the earth was a sphere. 6. 
They continue with me three days already. 7. I shall be 
there when you shall have arrived. 8. I have now been 
writing to a friend whom I have wished to have seen. 9. 
I have been waiting until my friend comes. 10. Studying 
law at Ann Arbor, he established himself as an attorney 
at Columbus. 11 . Having esteemed himself thoroughly 
qualified for the position, he accepts it. 12. John had ex- 
pected to have gone on yesterday. 13. I should have 
thought that you will come next week. 

Syntax of Prepositions. 

267. The preposition and its complement form a 
phrase usually related in sense to some other ex- 
pression which it modifies. 

Ex. — John went with his father to Boston. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. The preposition usually precedes its complement; 
but it sometimes, usually inelegantly, follows its comple- 
ment. 

Ex.— Compare, "He is a friend in whom I have great 
confidence" with, "He is a friend whom I have great con- 
fidence in. 

NOTE— Tlutt as a conjunctive pronoun, always precedes 
its preposition ; as, All that we hoped for, has passed away. 
The man that we confided the matter to has disappointed us. 

2. It is frequently convenient, though sometimes in- 
elegant, to use the same expression as complement of two 
or more prepositions, or as both a prepositional and object 
complement. 

Ex. — I am acquainted with, and have great respect for 
your friend. We know, and confide in Mr. Johnson. 

3. The preposition is generally omitted when its com- 
plement denotes that to which, of, or from which, or for 
which something is or is done, and precedes the object 
complement; when its complement follows like, unlike, 



168 Syntax of Prepositions. 

near, or nigh; when its complement is a noun denoting time, 
distance, direction, measure, or value and is used after a verb 
or an adjective; and when its force is implied but its use 
would be inelegant. 

Ex.— John gave [to] me a new book. I asked [of] or 
[from] him a favor. Jane bought [for] me a red rose. We 
stood near (to or unto) him. It was not like [unto] him to 
weep. We went [toward] north [for] Q.\e miles [on] yes- 
terday. They came [for] to see us. 

NOTE.— It is inelegant to use the preposition immediately 
before an indifferent predicate. 

4. A preposition that is common to two or more com- 
plements generally may be used before the first only;, but 
sometimes it may be advantageously repeated. 

Ex. — In their dress, their table, their houses, their fur- 
niture, the favorites of fortune united every comfort of 
convenience, of elegance, and of splendor. 

5. The complement of a preposition is sometimes 
omitted. 

Ex. — He is not a fit person to associate with (with whom 
to associate). 

6. A preposition may take as its complement a word, 
a phrase or a clause. 

Ex.— John came with me from beyond the river [for] 
that he might see the city. 

7. The preposition is sometimes incorporated with its 
complement, and the word so formed may generally be 
considered an adverb. 

Ex. — He fell asleep. Come aboard. Thereupon we 
started. 

8. When a prepositional complement becomes the 
passive subject, the preposition is generally retained with 
the predicate. 

Ex.— William was spoken to— called for— laughed at— 
thought of, etc. 

NOTE.— When a prepositional complement becomes the 
passive subject of a declarative or an imperative predicate, it 



Syntax of Prepositions. 169 

must have the nominative form, though it remains in sense 
the complement of its preposition which, in the diagram, 
stands without a complement; and the active subject if re- 
tained becomes a prepositional complement. 

Ex.— They laughed at him.=He was laughed at by 
them. 

9. A prepositional phrase should be placed as near as 
possible to the expression it modifies. 

Ex.— Proper— His desire for distinction was strong. 
Improper. — His desire was strong for distinction. 

10. What particular preposition should be chosen de- 
pends upon the complement to be used and the expression 
to which the phrase is to relate in sense. 

Ex. — To fall into a pit— upon a foe— from a height — to 
the ground— against a wall— by violence — within a day — 
with pain. 

NOTE.— Different prepositions combining with their com- 
plements, express meaning's so diverse, and often so delicate 
in their shades of distinctions, that a just discrimination in 
selecting" them can be acquired only by an extensive and 
attentive study of prepositional phrases as used by reputable 
authors. While it is true that some words are usually accom- 
panied by certain prepositions, and that certain prepositions 
usually occur in similar expressions, to assert this usage to be 
invariable is not the province of any grammarian. 

11. The following are a few of the words that are 
usually accompanied by the prepositions given here with 
them. Form short sentences containing each of the 
words, and combine its associate preposition with an 
appropriate complement, and note the difference of the 
phrases in sense: 

Abide at, by, with; abhorrence of; accommodate to, 
with; accord with; accuse of; acquit of; adapt to; agreea- 
ble to, with, among; advantage of, over; angry at, about, 
with; anxious about, for; argue, against, for, with; arrive 
at, in; attend on, upon, to; ask of, for, after; believe in, on; 
beguile of, with; betray to, into; boast of; call at, on; change 
for, to, into; charge for, on, to, with; careless of, about; 
communicate to, with; compare to, with; consist in, of; 



170 Syntax of Prepositions. 

defend from, against; die by, for, of; differ from, with; 
disappointed in, of, by; familiar to, with; glad at, of; impa- 
tient for, of, with; influence on, over, with; insensible of, to; 
intrude into, upon; live at, by, in, on, with; marry to* with; 
need of; obliged to, for; rule over; sick of; sit in, on, upon; 
true to; vest in, with; worth of; yearn for, toward. 

NOTE 1.— Among or amongst is generally used in pref- 
erence to between or betivioct, when reference is had to 
more than two things or aggregates, or when different things, 
are thought of as forming a collection. 

Ex.— The three divided the money among themselves. 

NOTE 2.— .Between or betwixt is generally used instead 
of among or amongst when but two things or aggregates 
are referred to, or when each of several things is thought of 
with reference to the one next to it. 

Ex.— I divided the money between the two boys who 
swept the spaces between the benches. When they built 
their houses, now more than a thousand, ample space was 
left between them. 

NOTE 3.— Into implies from without to within , and is 

used after verbs, denoting entrance. 

Ex. — He came into the field and labored in it. He put 
money into his purse, but he can not keep money in it. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Correct the errors. 

1. This book is different to any one you have. 2. If 
he did not differ from me we could not agree. 3. I differ 
with him in personal appearance. 4. John is sick with a 
fever, and he may die during the day. 5. James divided 
his cake between his five brothers. 6. Here are rows of 
chairs with spaces among them. 7. Between the many 
books, I have selected one*. 8. The bird flew in the house 
at the door, and out by the wjndow. 9. The boy climbed 
onto the fence, and fell on the ground. 10. My friend is 
in need for money. 11. I was followed with a crowd of 
rude boys. 12. He lives in Boston, on No. 28, in Pearl 
street. 13. I received a letter, but was disappointed of it. 
14. He was charged of stealing a horse, but he was inno- 



Syntax of Adverbs. 171 

cent of the matter. 15. He was innocent of taking the 
horse, but the jury believed him guilty in stealing it. 
16. He should profit from the example of others. 17. I 
was angry with the man from his remark. 18. You 
can confide on a true friend. 19. We arrived to Rochester 
within last Saturday. 20. His misfortune has plunged 
him in poverty. 21. Jane spends much of her time with 
reading novels. 22. They went at work, for they are 
dependent on their own earnings. 23. They remain hard 
to work all day, but come home on the night. 24. I can 
make no diminution in my expenses. 25. Do not depart 
out of the path of virtue. 26. The boy got down off of the 
desk. 27. Our country is now independent from England. 

28. During the last five years his house was burned. 

29. Poverty is attended with many inconveniences. 30. I 
shall correspond to my sister while I am absent. 

<r Syntax of Adverbs. 

268. Pure Adverbs are generally used as 
modifiers. They may modify — 

1. A verb or verb-group. 

2. An adjective however used. 

3. Another adverb. 

4. A prepositional phrase. 

5. A noun, by abridgment. 

6. An entire expression. 

TEST EXERCISE. 



He | writes 






1. 


rapidly. 


3. 
They 


very 




were x 


\gracious. 


2. 


exceedingly 





172 Syntax of Adverbs. 



John | came 



before 



noon 



4. just 



boy | is \> John. 



The 



there 



they | are\rogues. 



6. Undoubtedly, 



7. They live economically and happily. 8. The mys- 
tery will soon be explained. 9. The man instantly turned 
around. 10. A very old man piteously asked me for 
bread. 11. An exceedingly beautiful prairie lay before 
us. 12. Henceforth, let no man fear God ? s forsaking us. 
13. I will not be unjust to the very poor. 14. We traveled 
nearly across the continent. 15. He lives just beyond the 
hill. 16. The man yonder told us the news. 17. Doubt- 
less, ye are the people. 18. Why are you so sad and dis- 
consolate? 

269. A Pronominal Adverb is generally 
used as an attendant element, and the expression 
for which it stands may be considered, when ex- 
pressed, as its appositive modifier. 

NOTE— The pronominal adverb has a similar construction 
to that of either or neither frequently, and may be consid- 
ered as a remnant of an expression ; as, Can you write ? Yes— 
I say yes ;— I say yes, I can write. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1 1 can write. 



1. Can you write? Yes. or, Yes, (/ 



\) 



Syntax of Adverbs. 173 

I 1 can write. 

or, I 1 say/yes, (/]\) 

2. Have you seen Jane lately? No. 3. Yes, I have 
seen your father. 4. Yea, hath God said ye shall not eat 
of every tree of the garden? 5. Nay, do not do that. 
6. Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory 
forever. Amen. 

270. A Conjunctive Adverb not only in- 
troduces a clause used as a modifier, but also modi- 
fies some part of the introduced clause. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

you | call/me 



I | shall go 1. when 



2. We shall miss her when we gather round our blaz- 
ing hearths at night. 3. I can not leave home while 
mother is sick. 4. Go not where questionable pleasures 
entice thee. 5. Where your treasure is, there will be your 
heart. 6. It is home where the heart is, wherever that 
may be. 7. While walking in the garden I gathered some 
flowers. 8. Their rich, clustering locks, untouched by 
care, were bowed, as flowers are bowed with night, in 
prayer. 9. Whenever I hear that song, I think of home. 
10. Wheresoever I shall roam, I shall remember you. 

271. A Conjunctive Pronominal Adverb 

not only serves as a primary principal element, or 
prepositional complement, but modifies some part 
of the clause it introduces as an extended or 
secondary element or complement. 



174 



Syntax of Adyerbs. 



TEST EXERCISE. 

we I shall return 



1. When 



/ 



has been decided. 



2. We I have heard 



he | is. 



3. where 



3. How he succeeded is not yet known here. 4. Why 
he did it must remain a mystery. 5. How soon the world 
will end, is not known by men. 6. It is yet to be deter- 
mined when I shall return. 7. The question is how we 
shall proceed. 8. We hastened to where the accident 
happened. 9. They spoke of how it might have been 
done. 10. Ye know not whither the wind cometh nor 
whither it goeth. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

2. An adverb is sometimes used as an attendant ele- 
• ment to introduce an expression, or to assist the emphasis 
on some part of it. 

Ex.— Now, Peter swore terribly. Then, I am wronged. 
Why, even she married with my uncle. Well, what have 
you done to-day? 

2. There is frequently used as constructive or 
euphonic subject, the real subject following the predicate. 

Ex.— There were giants in those days. There followed 
him great multitudes. 

3. Sow, when, whence, where, whither and why are 
frequently used to introduce and indicate interrogatories. 

Ex.— How old are you? When will you come? 



Syntax of Adverbs. 175 

Where have you been, whence came you, and whither are 
you going? Why did you come? 

4. Avoid using adverbs as adjectives, and adjectives 
as adverbs. 

NOTE.— It is sometimes difficult to determine whether to 
use an adverb or adjective after certain intransitive pred- 
icates. In such cases, use an adjective when the idea relates 
to the subject, and an adverb when the idea relates to the 
predicate; as, He arrived safe. He came safely through 
the camp. 

Correct the errors. 

1. The fields look beautifully in the spring. 2. Velvet 
feels smoothly. 3. You ought to esteem your position 
higher. 4. The music was scarce audible. 5. He reads 
rapid. 6. We walked silent through the hall. 7. I was 
that happy I could have shouted. 8. The crops look 
more favorably this year. 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

1. One should ever act prudently. 2. Merrily rings 
out their childish glee. 3. He vainly tried to escape. 
4. They marched by precisely at noon. 5. Yea, have we 
not shown thee kindness? 6. Surely, goodness and mercy 
shall follow me. 7. Have you read the last paper? No. 
8. Jane left just before you came. 9. When the smoke 
cleared away we saw how terrible the charge had been. 
10. Do you know where Mr. Smith lives? 11. They told 
us how tali the man was. 12. He speaks, as he writes, 
carefully and accurately. 13. Well, I see you have soon 
finished your work. 14. We often find difficulties where 
we least expect them. 15. Why was the treaty broken so 
soon? 16. The sick were kindly attended. 17. There 
have been many changes there. 

Syntax of Conjunctions. 

272. A Conjunction, or a Conjunctive 

Phrase introduces, or both introduces and joins 



176 



Syntax of Adverbs. 



an expression to a preceding expression of the 

same sentence. 

Ex.— John and James have returned, hut William 
remained in town. 

REMARKS. 

1. The order of arrangement of the expressions is 
frequently inverted, so that two conjunctions stand 
together. 

Ex.— I expect to buy that property, and, if I do buy 
it, I shall improve it. 

NOTE. —In the diagram the expressions must stand, in their 
natural order. 






expect/ 



Ex. 



I 


i 


\ 

to buy/property 


/ 




and 


that 




I 


shall improve/ 


It 








/l\ 




if 


1 




I 1 


\ 

do buy/it. 


/ 



2. The conjunction is frequently omitted when its 
force is apparent, and it is easily supplied. 

Ex.— God is good [J merciful [J forbearing [,] just; 
His greatness fills space [,] time [,} eternity. 

3. Conditional clauses are frequently so constructed 
as to obviate the use of a conjunction to join them. 

Ex.— Were he honest, he would pay me. Had I seen 
him, I would have warned him. 



4. Some conjunctions introduce clauses mutually 
dependent. 



Syntax of Conjunctions. 177 



Ex. As he I excels 



/ 


\ 




in 


/l\ 






virtue, 












he | rises 


/ 


\ 


/ 




in 


estimation. 







5. In expressing a comparison the conjunction As 
introduces a clause or a remnant of it correspondent to 
the adverb as or so; the conjunction That introduces a 
clause correspondent to the adverb so; and the conjunc- 
tion Than introduces a clause or a remnant of it corres- 
pondent to an adjective or an adverb having the compar- 
ative degree of comparison. 

Ex.— John is as old as James is. The bush is not so 
tall as the tree is. Pompey was not so great a man as 
Csesar. The hill is so steep that we could not climb it. 
James is older than William. 

6. Two conjunctions are frequently used with the 
same expression. 

Ex.— That the earth is a sphere, and that it rotates on 
its axis are conceded facts. 

7. Or and Nor are sometimes used instead of Either 
and Neither. 

Ex.— "Or I shall live your epitaph to make, or you 
survive when I in earth am rotten." "Nor steel nor 
poison can touch him further." 

GENERAL TEST EXERCISE. 

1. His crime has been discovered and he must flee. 
2. He refused the crown, but he desired it. 3. You must 
eat or you will die. 4. Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
him. 5. Because he is rich, therefore he is insolent. 
6. If thou seekest knowledge, then thou shalt find it. 



178 Syntax of Conjunctions. 

7. She is as modest as she is beautiful. 8. A hill is not 
so high as a mountain. 9. He was so feeble that he had 
to be helped. 10. He has no other ambition than to be 
good. 11. Jane is taller than Mary. 12. I will attempt it, 
though I do not hope to succeed. 13. I will try, and if I 
succeed, I shall so inform you. 14. That the sun is 
larger than all its planets, and that it gives light to them, 
are facts. 15. There is nothing either good or bad but 
thinking makes it so. 16. Neither would the dog eat the 
hay or let the ox eat it. 17. The war decided whether 
slavery should remain a part of our governmental struc- 
ture or not. 18. Both the ties of consanguinity and the 
dictates of sound policy were disregarded. 19. And, 
behold, it was no other than he. 20. For a man to be 
selfish is mean. 

'INTERJECTIONS. 

273. Interjections, as such, can not enter into 
relation with other expressions. They are, there- 
fore, attendant elements. 

Ex.— Alas! she was dead! Oh! how sad! 

Bemark — Other parts of speech may be used, in 
exclamation, like interjections. 

Ex.— What! might he be mistaken? O, woe! I have 
no friends. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

1. Ah, my information was true. 2. Alas! they 
stoned him to death. 3. Pshaw, John, you know that is 
wrong. 4. Hurrah! the right has prevailed. 5. Ah, me! 
but you can prove nothing. 6. O, let me live to undo the 
wrong I have done. 



Ehetorical Division of Sentences. 179 



ZPj^IRT I"V. 



Rhetorical Division of Sentences. 

274. Simple, complex and compound sentences, 
considered as single and distinct expressions, with 
reference to their effect on the understanding, are 
divided into live kinds or classes, namely, Assert- 
ive, Interrogative, Optative, Mandatory and 
Exclamatory. 

275. An Assertive Sentence is one of which 
the general effect is affirmation or negation. 

Ex.— John reads. Pompey waged more wars than 
others had read of; conquered more provinces than others 
had governed; and he had been trained up, from his youth, 
to the art of war; not by the precepts of others, but by his 
own commands. 

276. An Interrogative Sentence is one of 
which the general effect is an interrogation. 

Ex.— Have you seen John since he returned? How 
old was Columbus when he discovered America? 

277. An Optative Sentence is one used to 
express a wish, usually without naming the wisher. 

Ex.— May you have health and happiness. Ruin seize 
thee, ruthless king. God pity the poor this stormy night 
"Let there be light." 

278. A Mandatory Sentence is one of which 
the general effect is produced by the use of an 



180 Capital Letters. 



imperative predicate whose subject has the second 
person. 

Ex. — O, give thanks unto the Lord; call upon His holy 
name; make known His deeds among the people. Re- 
member His marvelous works that He hath done. 

279. An Exclamatory Sentence is any sen- 
tence used as an exclamation, that is, so as to indi- 
cate the effect, upon the utterer, of the feeling or 
passion that prompted the utterance. 

Ex.— Shylock! a pound of that same merchant's flesh 
is thine! O, how wretched is that poor man, that hangs on 
princes' favors! May all the curses of life be on him! 

Capital Letters. 

280. Begin with a capital letter, — 

1. The first word of every rhetorical sentence. 

Ex.— -The sun shines. Who is the man? 

Remark 1.— Ehetorical sentences are frequently incor- 
porated as an element of another sentence, by formal 
quotation; and then it retains its initial capital. But 
when it is informally quoted it loses its initial capital. 

Remark 2.— A Formal Quotation is one whose 
exact words, as well as thought, aie copied, or thought of 
as copied. 

Ex.— Mary said, 4t He is my uncle." u One truth is 
clear; whatever is, is right." 

Remark 3.— An Informal Quotation is one whose 
thought, but not the exact words, is copied, or thought of 
as copied. 

Ex. — Mary said that he was her uncle. 

NOTE.— It seems that when the exact words and thought 
are not conceived as copied, it is an informal quotation. 

Ex. — One truth, that whatever is, is right, is clear. 



Capital Letters. 181 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

Ex.— "Not a truth has to art or to science been given, 
But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and 
striven." 

3. Each line of a formal enumeration of items 

arranged in lines. 

Ex.— The teacher reported,— 

No. days taught 20 

No. male pupils enrolled. 16 

No. female pupils enrolled 20 

Total ^o. pupils 36 

Average daily attendance 34 

4. Usually the first word after a formal intro- 
ductory word or clause. 

Ex.—Besolved, That the capital of the U. S. should 
be removed to St. Louis. Be it enacted by the General 
Assembly of the State of Indiana, That every foreign cor- 
poration, &c. Provided, That it shall be lawful, &c. 

5. Proper nouns, proper adjectives, titles of 
especial honor or distinction, common nouns per- 
sonified, words denoting the Deity, and words of 
special importance. 

NOTE.— (See rule and observations for capitals under 
Nouns.) 

6. Usually abbreviations. 

Ex.— Mr., Mrs., Gen., N. Y., Dr., Tenn., &c. 

7. The pronoun "I" and the interjection "O" 
should always be capitals. 

Ex.—O Lord, what shall I do to be saved? 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Supply capitals where needed, and reduce those 
wrongly used. 

1. it is pleasant to recall the scenes of our Childhood, 



182 Punctuation. 



remember the maxim, u know thyself." father said, u my 
boy, do right." 

2. and shun, o, shun the enchanted cup, 
though now its draught like joy appears, 

ere long it will be fanned by sighs, 
and sadly mixed with blood and tears. 

3. the Town has expended the last year,— 

for marshal's salary $600.00 

for street improvement 500.00 

for lighting streets 200.00 

4. resolved, that the proposition be accepted, this 
indenture witnesseth, that We, John Jones and James 
fisk, &c. 

5. We shall start, next Sunday, from new york, to 
london, england. When music, heavenly maid, was 
young—. The hand that made us is divine. The savior 
said, " suffer little children to come unto Me." 

6. mr. gordon and gen. grant were in the City on 
tuesday. dr. Bliss was gov. Morton's Physician. 

7. o, let us give thanks unto the lord, i tell you, i 
like to go to school. 

PUNCTUATION. 

281. Punctuation is the art of distinguishing 
and preserving the different expressions in written 
discourse, by means of marks or points. 

NOTE.— Punctuation, though its province is chiefly gram- 
matical, greatly assists the reader in determining many of 
the most important pauses. 

Bemark.— By changing the punctuation, the same 
words used in the same order, may be made to compose a 
variety of expressions. 

Ex.— John Jones the doctor says he is sick. 
John, Jones the doctor says he is sick. 
John Jones, the doctor says he is sick. 
"John Jones the doctor," says he, u is sick." 



Punctuation. 183 



282. The marks commonly used in punctuation 
are the — 

Comma , Exclamation Point ! 

Semicolon ; Dash — 

Colon : Quotation Marks "" 

Period . Curves () 

Interrogation Point ? Brackets 

NOTE.— The following will be found to comprehend the 
principal uses of these marks. 

THE PERIOD. 

283. The Period should be placed after every 
complete assertive, optative and mandatory sentence; 
after every abbreviation, after letters used as numer- 
als, after captions, after the number at the begin- 
ning of a paragraph or line, and before decimals. 

NOTE 1.— The possessive sign added to an abbreviation, 
follows the period. 

Ex.— The Dr.'s story was interesting. 

Note 2.— Abbreviated words pronounced as spotted, and 
such expressions as 1st, 2nd, 4to, 8vo, 9°, 21', are not abbre- 
viations within the meaning of the rule. 

Ex.— Ben Johnson; July 3d; 12°, 14', 25". 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Supply periods where needed. 
1 It snows 2 May heaven bless you 3 Let the 
wind blow 4 Mr Smith is old 5 Clark & Co furnished 
the coal 6 The house rents for £35, 8s, 6d per yr 7 Hon 
J A Garfield addressed the assembly 8 Geo III, King of 
Eng, was a narrow-minded man 9 Ind is bounded N by 
L Mich and Mich, E by O, S by Ky and W by 111 10 Jno's 
hat is old 11 He read Ps xxiii, 6, 7 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

284. Every interrogative sentence, whether com- 



184 PUXCTUATION. 



plete or abridged, should end with an Interrogation 
Point. 

Ex.— Who is that man? Which one? Do you not 
perceive that your designs are discovered, and that all 
who are present know of your conspiracy? 

Bemark 1.— The interrogation point is frequently used 
after each interrogative clause of a compound sentence. 

Ex.— What! feed a child's body and let his soul hun- 
ger? pamper his body and starve his faculties? 

Bemmk 2.— An interrogative sentence formally 
quoted and used as one of the principal elements of a 
complex sentence, should end with an interrogation 
point. 

Ex.— The question, "Shall we proceed?" was answered 
affirmatively. 

NOTE— If the for&ial interrogative quotation ends the 
complex sentence, the interrogation point alone is used, 
though the sentence should otherwisa end with a period. 

Ex.— The chairman put the question: "Shall the 
meeting adjourn?" 

TEST EXERCISES- 

Supply interrogation points where needed. 

1. But I am met with the objection, "What good 
will the monument do" and I ask in return, "What good 
does anything do" 2. Can honor set a leg No. Or an 
arm No. Or take away the grief of a wound No. 
Honor has no skill in surgery, then No. 3. What 
bounds will you set to your unbridled rage 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

285. Every exclamatory sentence, whether com- 
plete or abridged, should end with an Exclamation 
Point. 



Punctuation. 185 



Ex.— Dark is the night! How dark! No Light! 
No fire ! 
Cold on the hearth the last faint sparks expire! 

BemarTc. — Great freedom is given to the use of the 
exclamation point. It is usual to place it after any 
expression used as an exclamation. 

Ex.— "Hark! How the sign-boards creak! The blast 
howls by! 
Moan! Moan! A dirge swells through the 

cloudy sky! 
Ha! 'tis his knock! he comes! he comes once 

more! 
'Tis but the lattice flaps!" Thy hope is o'er! 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

286. Every formal quotation, and words used 
as the peculiar language of another, should be en- 
closed with Quotation Marks. 

NOTE 1.— A quotation within a quotation should be en- 
closed with only one of the marks at each end of it. 

Ex.— "Leaning upon his hand, he 'consents to death, 
but conquers agony.' " 

NOTE 2.— Authors frequently divide a quotation by insert- 
ing" their own language ; andiihen each part of the quotation 
should be enclosed with the marks. 

Ex.— "Seek," whispers a voice in his soul, "and thou 
shalt find." 

THE COMMA. 

287. Each except the last of two or more ex- 
pressions in succession joined by conjunctions and 
having the same relation to another element, should 
have a comma at its close, unless all the conjunc- 
tions are expressed. 

Ex. — 1. A full blown, red rose is pretty and fragrant. 
2. John, James, and Joseph went across the field, and 
through the forest, to the village. 3. Anna gave me a 
peach, a pear, an apple, and an orange. 4. Thine is the 
kingdom and the power and the glory. 



186 Punctuation. 



Bemark 1. — Expressions used in pairs have the comma 
at the close of each pair. 

Ex. — Summer and winter, seed time and harvest, and 
sunshine and gloom, come in their order. 

Bemar1c2. — Antithetical, equivalent, and parenthet- 
ical expressions should be set off: by commas. 

Ex.— 1. Though deep, yet clear. 2. Maize, or Indian 
corn, is their principal product. 3. I doubt, however, 
that it is right. 

288. An appositive modifier, (except a noun, 
unmodified, or modified by "the" only), should be 
set off by the comma. 

Ex.— Milton, the prince of poets, was blind. The 
idea, that the earth is flat, has been refuted. 

NOTE.— A clause which is the antecedent and appositive 
modifier of "it," is not set off by the comma, "when it does not 
immediately follow its pronoun. 

Ex.— It is wicked to lie. It is strange that men should 
like war. 

289. An attendant element should be set off by 
the comma. 

Ex.— 2. John, what do you study? 2. Well, I will 
tell you. 3. Speaking plainly, you have deceived us. 

4. The command having been given, we proceeded. 

5. To tell the truth, we lost the way. 

NOTE.— The exclamation point usually takes the place of 
the comma after exclamations. 

Ex.— Where, O Death! is thy sting? William, alas! 
perished. 

290. A declarative clause used as attribute com- 
plement, or as modifier, unless it closely follows 
and restricts the term to which it relates, is usually 
set off by the comma. 

Ex.— My opinion is, that the man is a scholar. 2. The 
rose, which was a fine one, was full blown. 3. The boys, 
when they had finished their work, were permitted to 
play. 



Punctuation. 187 



291. Expressions out of their natural order are 

usually set off by the comma. 

Ex.— In the spring, when the weather is fine, we sail 
on the lake. 

NOTE.— The above rule should be applied with great 
caution. 

292. The members, if short and closely con- 
nected, of a compound sentence, may be set off by 
the comma. 

Ex.— John came quickly, but James remained where 
he was. 

TEST EXERCISE. 

Supply commas where needed. 
1. John James and William he said were good boys. 
2. Hope and fear pleasure and pains anxiety and indiffer- 
ence diversify our lives. 3. Intelligence not wealth dis- 
tinguishes him. 4. The report that John has returned is 
not true. 5. Well now what did he say? 6. To tell the 
truth I do not know. 7. The man who then came for- 
ward answered me. 8. His belief was that the earth is 
round. 9. Birds fly but fishes swim. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

293. The Semicolon should be used between 
the members of a compound sentence when they 
are long, or contain expressions set off by commas, 
or are independent of each other or nearly so; after 
each of a series of long expressions having a common 
relation to some other expression; before an enum- 
eration of particulars not formally introduced; and 
before as when it introduces an example. 

Ex.— Everthing has its time to flourish; everything 
grows old: everything passes away. If we do our whole 
duty nobly; if we feed the hungry and minister to the 
sick; if we give up our own luxuries, to secure necessary 
comforts for the destitute, we shall have our reward in 
the applause of our ,own conscience. There are four 



188 Punctuation. 



genders; the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and the 
common. A noun is the name of anything; as, boy, 
house. 

THE COLON, 

294. The Colon is used before an expression 
introduced by "as follows/' "the following," or any 
equivalent expression; also, after any expression 
which is complete in itself, but is followed by some 
remark, inference, or explanation. 

Ex.— He spoke as follows: Mr. Speaker,—. Please 
to send the following items: 5 bbs. flour, &c. Yes: I 
know it. Mr. President: I move, &c. 

THE DASH. 

295. The Dash is used after an unfinished ex- 
pression. It may denote an abrupt change, or 
great embarrassment. 

Ex.— Mr.— says— excuse me— that he loves you. I— 
I— I— well, I don't hate him. 

THE CURVES. 

296. The Curves are used to inclose explana- 
tory expressions and remarks not necessary to the 
structure of other expressions in which they occur. 

Ex'.— He is a gentleman (and I say it deferentially) 
who scorns such conduct. 

THE BRACKETS. 

298. The Brackets are used to inclose words 
improperly omitted by the author, or introduced to 
correct a mistake; and to inclose observations and 
remarks made apart from the subject. 

Ex.— It is Ann's [hat]. Truth and justice impose on 
us higher obligations. [Applause]. 

NOTE.— The teacher should require pupils to justify or 
criticise the punctuation in their books till they become well 
acquainted with the rules of punctuation. 

THE END. 



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